Low level light therapy for enhancement of neurologic function by altering axonal transport rate

ABSTRACT

Methods of altering the rate of axonal transport are provided in several embodiments. Some embodiments alter axonal transport in a patient in need of an enhancement of axonal transport to alleviate symptoms of a disease or injury. The methods further include delivering electromagnetic radiation to at least one portion of the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nervous system of a patient sufficient to effect an alteration in axonal transport in the patient.

RELATED CASES

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/844,205 filed on Aug. 23, 2007, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/840,370, filed Aug. 24, 2006; this application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/482,220, filed on Jul. 7, 2006, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/682,379, filed on Oct. 9, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,303,578, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/502,147, filed Sep. 11, 2003, 60/487,979, filed Jul. 17, 2003, and 60/442,693, filed Jan. 24, 2003; U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/682,379 and 11/482,220 each are a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/287,432, filed on Nov. 1, 2002, now abandoned, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/369,260, filed Apr. 2, 2002 and 60/336,436, filed Nov. 1, 2001, all incorporated by reference in their entireties herein.

BACKGROUND

Field of the Invention

The present application relates to systems and methods for enhancing neurologic function. Several embodiments are directed to enhancing function in individuals having a loss of one or more neurologic functions, including but not limited to, motor function, cognitive function, including that resulting from injury, neurological disorders, normal age-related degeneration, etc.

Description of the Related Art

Parkinson's disease is a chronic, progressive neurodegenerative disease or movement disorder that affects up to one million people in the United States. Parkinson's disease affects neurologic function by degrading motor skills of the subject and by causing dementia. The pathology of Parkinson's disease includes reduced formation and action of dopamine, which is produced in the dopaminergic neurons of the brain. Previous research of the causes and possible treatments of Parkinson's disease have been directed towards efforts to compensate for the reduced formation and action of dopamine caused by the disease.

Dementia (e.g., as resulting from Parkinson's disease) is a collection of symptoms but it is not itself a disease. It is characterized as the loss of cognitive function having a severity so as to interfere with a person's daily activities. Cognitive function includes activities such as knowing, thinking, learning, memory, perception, and judging. Symptoms of dementia can also include changes in personality, mood, and behavior of the subject. Although, in some cases, dementia can be cured by curing the underlying disease (e.g. infection, nutritional deficiency, tumor), in most cases dementia is considered incurable.

High energy laser radiation is now well accepted as a surgical tool for cutting, cauterizing, and ablating biological tissue. High energy lasers are now routinely used for vaporizing superficial skin lesions and, to make deep cuts. For a laser to be suitable for use as a surgical laser, it must provide laser energy at a power sufficient to heart tissue to temperatures over 50° C. Power outputs for surgical lasers vary from 1-5 W for vaporizing superficial tissue, to about 100 W for deep cutting.

In contrast, low level laser therapy involves therapeutic administration of laser energy to a patient at vastly lower power outputs than those used in high energy laser applications, resulting in desirable biostimulatory effects while leaving tissue undamaged. For example, in rat models of myocardial infarction and ischemia-reperfusion injury, low energy laser irradiation reduces infarct size and left ventricular dilation, and enhances angiogenesis in the myocardium. (Yaakobi et al., J. Appl. Physiol. 90, 2411-19 (2001)). Low level laser therapy has been described for treating pain, including headache and muscle pain, and inflammation.

SUMMARY

In several embodiments, a method for enhancing axonal transport in a neuron (e.g., an impaired neuron or a healthy neuron) using low level light therapy (LLLT) is provided. In one embodiment, the method comprises providing an LLLT device having a light emitting surface that emits light energy, identifying one or more neurons having impaired axonal transport and delivering light energy to the one or more neurons, wherein the light energy enhances one or more of the velocity of axonal transport, the average distance of axonal transport, and the total distance of axonal transport, thereby enhancing axonal transport of the one or more neurons. In some embodiments, the light energy has a wavelength between 800 nm and 815 nm (e.g., 805, 808, 810, 813 nm). In some embodiments, the light energy has an irradiance at the light emitting surface of about 1400 mW/cm² to about 4200 mW/cm² (e.g., 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000 4200 mW/cm²). In some embodiments, the light energy has an irradiance at or within about one centimeter of the one or more neurons of about 20 mW/cm² to about 60 mW/cm² (e.g., 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60 mW/cm²).

In several embodiments, a method for enhancing neuronal axonal transport in a patient having one or more symptoms of Parkinson's Disease is provided. In one embodiment, the method comprises providing an LLLT device, wherein the LLLT device has a light emitting surface that emits light energy, identifying a patient with one or more symptoms of Parkinson's Disease, delivering light energy to the patient, wherein the light energy has a wavelength between 800 nm and 815 nm, wherein the light energy has an irradiance at the light emitting surface of about 1400 mW/cm² to about 4200 mW/cm² configured for delivering light to a plurality of neurons in the patient, and wherein the light energy enhances one or more of a velocity of axonal transport in the neurons, an average distance of axonal transport in the neurons, and a total distance of axonal transport in the neurons, thereby enhancing axonal transport in the neurons and improving one or more symptoms of Parkinson's Disease.

In several embodiments, a method for matching, mirroring or otherwise tracking natural neuronal or cellular activity with LLLT is provided. In one embodiment, the invention comprises a method for enhancing neuronal function in a neuron, comprising providing an LLLT device, wherein the LLLT device has a light emitting surface that emits light energy, identifying a target neuron, determining the action potential duration and refractory period of the target neuron, delivering light energy to the neuron, wherein the light energy is pulsed, wherein the delivery of the light energy is synchronized with one or more characteristics of the action potential, and wherein the synchronized administration of LLLT to the neuron enhances the function of the neuron. In some embodiments, the light energy has a wavelength between 800 nm and 815 nm and has an irradiance at the light emitting surface of about 1400 mW/cm² to about 4200 mW/cm².

In some embodiments, the light energy has an irradiance at or within about one centimeter of the target neuron(s) of about 50 mW/cm². In some embodiments, the light energy has a wavelength of 810 nm.

In some embodiments, the axonal transport in the target neurons is impaired by at least about 10% as compared to axonal transport in a healthy neuron. In some embodiments, axonal transport of the target neurons after LLLT is comparable to axonal transport in healthy neurons. In some embodiments, the enhancement of axonal transport enhances transport of one or more mitochondria along an axon of one or more neurons. In some embodiments, axonal transport is enhanced in a healthy neuron.

In some embodiments, the target neuron(s) comprises at least one of a peripheral neuron, sensory neuron, motor neuron and inter neuron. In some embodiments, the neurons are associated with cognitive function. In some embodiments, the target neurons are dopaminergic neurons and the enhanced axonal transport increases the delivery of dopamine to the synapse of the dopaminergic neurons.

In several embodiments, the methods provided further comprise identifying a patient having a neurological impairment, wherein the neurological impairment is selected from the group consisting of: Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, dopaminergic impairment, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and delivering the light energy to the patient. In several embodiments, the methods provided further comprise identifying a patient having Parkinson's disease, and delivering the light energy to the patient.

In some embodiments, the enhancement of axonal transport comprises increasing the rate of axonal transport. In some embodiments, enhancing the rate of axonal transport comprises accelerating the clearance of a substance from the neuron.

In several embodiments, the methods further comprise determining the rate of axonal transport in response to the delivery of the light energy and adjusting the light energy in response to the determined rate of axonal transport.

In several embodiments, the light energy is delivered continuously. In several embodiments, the light energy is delivered in pulses. In some embodiments, the light energy is delivered in pulses at a frequency ranging from about 80 to about 120 Hz.

In certain embodiments, a method of treating a patient having neurologic function affected by Parkinson's disease is provided. The method comprises providing a patient having neurologic function affected by Parkinson's disease. The method further comprises delivering electromagnetic radiation noninvasively through the scalp and the skull of the patient to at least one portion of the brain of the patient. The light energy has a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range, and the wavelength, power density (or irradiance), and amount of the light energy delivered to the at least one portion of the brain are sufficient to reduce the severity of symptoms of Parkinson's disease in the patient.

In certain embodiments, a method of treating or preventing Parkinson's disease is provided. The method comprises noninvasively irradiating at least a portion of a patient's brain with electromagnetic radiation transmitted through the scalp. The electromagnetic radiation has a power density (or irradiance) between 0.01 mW/cm² and 100 mW/cm² at a depth of approximately 2 centimeters below the dura. As used herein, power density and irradiance are used interchangeably.

In certain embodiments, a method of treating a patient is provided. The method comprises delivering electromagnetic radiation noninvasively through the scalp and the skull to at least one portion of the brain of the patient. The light energy has a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range, and the wavelength, power density, and amount of the light energy delivered to the at least one portion of the brain are sufficient to prevent, reduce the severity, or reduce the incidence of Parkinson's disease in the patient.

In certain embodiments, a method of preventing Parkinson's disease in a patient is provided. The method comprises providing a patient having a predisposition towards contracting Parkinson's disease. The method further comprises delivering electromagnetic radiation noninvasively through the scalp and the skull of the patient to at least one portion of the brain of the patient. The light energy has a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range, and the wavelength, power density, and amount of the light energy delivered to the at least one portion of the brain are sufficient to reduce a probability of the patient contracting Parkinson's disease.

In certain embodiments, a method of treating the central nervous system of a patient is provided. The method comprises identifying a patient exhibiting symptoms of damage to the central nervous system due to Parkinson's disease. The method further comprises irradiating an in vitro culture comprising progenitor cells with electromagnetic radiation having a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range and a power density of at least about 0.01 mW/cm². The method further comprises implanting the irradiated cells into the central nervous system of the patient.

For purposes of summarizing embodiments of the invention, certain aspects, advantages, and novel features of the present invention have been described herein above. It is to be understood, however, that not necessarily all such advantages may be achieved in accordance with any particular embodiment of the present invention. Thus, embodiments of the invention may be embodied or carried out in a manner that achieves or optimizes one advantage or group of advantages as taught herein without necessarily achieving other advantages as may be taught or suggested herein

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a therapy apparatus comprising a cap which fits securely over the patient's head.

FIG. 2 schematically illustrates a fragmentary cross-sectional view taken along the lines 2-2 of FIG. 1, showing one embodiment of a portion of a therapy apparatus comprising an element and its relationship to the scalp and brain.

FIG. 3 schematically illustrates an embodiment with an element comprising a container coupled to an inlet conduit and an outlet conduit for the transport of a flowing material through the element.

FIG. 4A schematically illustrates a fragmentary cross-sectional view taken along the lines 2-2 of FIG. 1, showing another embodiment of a portion of a therapy apparatus comprising an element with a portion contacting the scalp and a portion spaced away from the scalp.

FIG. 4B schematically illustrates a fragmentary cross-sectional view taken along the lines 2-2 of FIG. 1, showing an embodiment of a portion of a therapy apparatus comprising a plurality of light sources and an element with portions contacting the scalp and portions spaced away from the scalp.

FIGS. 5A and 5B schematically illustrate cross-sectional views of two embodiments of the element in accordance with FIG. 4B taken along the line 4-4.

FIGS. 6A-6C schematically illustrate an embodiment in which the light sources are spaced away from the scalp.

FIGS. 7A and 7B schematically illustrate the diffusive effect on the light by the element.

FIGS. 8A and 8B schematically illustrate two light beams having different cross-sections impinging a patient's scalp and propagating through the patient's head to irradiate a portion of the patient's brain tissue.

FIG. 9A schematically illustrates a therapy apparatus comprising a cap and a light source comprising a light blanket.

FIGS. 9B and 9C schematically illustrate two embodiments of the light blanket.

FIG. 10 schematically illustrates a therapy apparatus comprising a flexible strap and a housing.

FIG. 11 schematically illustrates a therapy apparatus comprising a handheld probe.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram of a control circuit comprising a programmable controller.

FIG. 13 schematically illustrates a therapy apparatus comprising a light source and a controller.

FIG. 14 schematically illustrates a light source comprising a laser diode and a galvometer with a mirror and a plurality of motors.

FIGS. 15A and 15B schematically illustrate two irradiation patterns that are spatially shifted relative to each other.

FIG. 16 schematically illustrates an example therapy apparatus in accordance with embodiments described herein.

FIG. 17A is a graph of the effects of laser treatment of 7.5 mW/cm² for a treatment duration of 2 minutes on a population of rabbits having small clot embolic stroke.

FIG. 17B is a graph of the effects of laser treatment of 25 mW/cm² for a treatment duration of 10 minutes on a population of rabbits having small clot embolic stroke.

FIG. 18 is a graph showing the therapeutic window for laser-induced behavioral improvements after small-clot embolic strokes in rabbits.

FIG. 19 schematically illustrates an example apparatus which is wearable by a patient for treating the patient's brain.

FIG. 20 schematically illustrates an example apparatus having a plurality of elements in accordance with certain embodiments described herein.

FIG. 21 schematically illustrates an example element in an exploded view.

FIG. 22A schematically illustrates an example optical component with example dimensions in inches.

FIGS. 22B and 22C schematically illustrate other example optical components in accordance with certain embodiments described herein.

FIG. 23 schematically illustrates an example first support ring with example dimensions in inches.

FIG. 24 schematically illustrates an example second support ring with example dimensions in inches.

FIG. 25 schematically illustrates an example label compatible with certain embodiments described herein.

FIGS. 26A and 26B schematically illustrate an example labeling configuration for the apparatus on the left-side and right-side of the apparatus.

FIG. 26C schematically illustrates the example labeling configuration of FIGS. 26A and 26B from above a flattened view of the apparatus.

FIGS. 27A-27E schematically illustrate various stages of structures formed during the fabrication of the apparatus of FIGS. 20-25.

FIG. 28 schematically illustrates an apparatus which emits light for irradiating a patient's skin to treat portions of a patient's body underneath the patient's skin.

FIG. 29 schematically illustrates an example optical conduit optically coupled to an example optical device.

FIG. 30 schematically illustrates a simplified optical device compatible with certain embodiments described herein.

FIG. 31A illustrates two beam profile cross-sections of a light beam emitted from the optical device of FIG. 29 with the planes of the two cross-sections of FIG. 31A generally perpendicular to one another and to the output optical element.

FIG. 31B illustrates the encircled energy of a light beam emitted from the optical device of FIG. 29.

FIG. 32A illustrates two beam profile cross-sections of a light beam emitted from the optical device of FIG. 30 having a smooth gold-plated conical inner surface.

FIG. 32B illustrates the encircled energy of a light beam emitted from the optical device of FIG. 30.

FIG. 33 illustrates two beam profile cross-sections of a light beam emitted from the optical device of FIG. 30 having a grit sandblasted conical inner surface.

FIGS. 34A and 34B illustrate the beam divergence for the optical device of FIG. 29 and of FIG. 30 (with a sandblasted inner surface), respectively.

FIG. 35 is a flow diagram of an example method for controllably exposing at least one predetermined area of a patient's scalp to laser light to irradiate the patient's brain.

FIG. 36 is a graph which shows mediators responsible for ischemic stroke tissue damage and the time points at which they occur.

FIG. 37 is a schematic diagram of the electron transport chain in mitochondria.

FIG. 38 is a graph of cell proliferation and cytochrome oxidase activity percentage as functions of the wavelength of light used to stimulate mammalian cells.

FIG. 39 is a graph of the transmittance of light through blood (in arbitrary units) as a function of wavelength.

FIG. 40 is a graph of the absorption of light by brain tissue.

FIG. 41 is a graph of the efficiency of energy delivery as a function of wavelength.

FIG. 42 is a bar graph of the absorption of 808 nanometer light through various rat tissues.

FIG. 43 is a graph of the power density versus the depth from the dura for an input power density of 10 mW/cm².

FIGS. 44A-44D are montages depicting the movements of labeled mitochondria. Moving mitochondria in each montage are indicated by arrowheads, arrows, circles, and boxes. FIG. 44A illustrates movement in a disease-free neuron. FIG. 44B illustrates movement of mitochondria in the same neuron, 90 minutes after administration of low-level light therapy. FIG. 44C illustrates movement in a Parkinson's disease (PD) neuron. FIG. 44D illustrates movement in a Parkinson's disease neuron 85 minutes after administration of low-level light therapy.

FIGS. 45A-45C depict various analysis endpoints of mitochondrial movement. FIG. 45A depicts the average velocity of mitochondrial movement in the processes various neuritis. FIG. 45B depicts the average distance traveled by mitochondria during the recording period. FIG. 45C depicts the total distance traveled during the recording period by mitochondria in each category during the recording period by mitochondria in each category.

FIGS. 46A-46P depict mitochondrial assembly. The montage in FIG. 46A-O shows PD61 cybrid neuronal cells stained with fluorescent antibodies to evaluate mitochondrial assembly. Staining for Complex I (NDUFB4) is shown in 46A-C, Complex II (30 kDa) is shown in 46D-F, Complex III (Core 2 protein) is shown in 46G-I, Complex IV (subunit I) is shown in 46J-L, and Complex V (OSCP) is shown in 46M-O. Cybrid neuronal cells in the first column that exhibit double staining are orange or yellow and have intact mtETC assembly while cybrid neuronal cells that lack intact assembly of complexes in the mtETC are red. FIG. 46P depicts counts of PD cybrid neuronal cells that contained fully assembled mtETC complexes.

FIGS. 47A-47F depict illustrate the levels of routine (basal) respiration (FIG. 47A), nonphosphorylating leak (oligomycin inhibited) respiration (FIG. 47B), capacity of the electron transport chain in nonpermeablized cells (FIG. 47C), residual oxygen consumption or ROX (FIG. 47D), maximum uncoupled respiration mediated by complex I (FIG. 47E) and the respiratory control ratio (FIG. 47F) in Rho0 cells, and selected PD and CNT cybrid neuron lines.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Several embodiments of the invention disclosed herein provide for methods to alter axonal transport. In some embodiments, axonal transport may occur at reduced levels due to disease, injury, and/or age-related loss of function. In some embodiments, neurons are intentionally injured or damaged in order to model a disease or other cause of reduced axonal transport. In several embodiments, administration of low level light therapy (“LLLT”) (according to methods disclosed herein) induces a recovery in axonal transport in those neurons having reduced axonal transport for one or more of the reasons discussed herein. In several embodiments, axonal transport is enhanced in neurons having normal axonal transport. In still other embodiments, low level light therapy can be administered to, unexpectedly, reduce or even stop axonal transport. Such embodiments are useful in contexts such as pain management or treatment of seizures, as discussed in more detail below.

Certain embodiments described herein for low level light therapy methods for enhancing neurologic function are based in part on the new and surprising discovery that power density (i.e., power per unit area or irradiance) of the light energy applied to tissue appears to be a very important factor in determining the relative efficacy of low level light therapy, and particularly with respect to enhancing the function of neurons in both healthy and diseased states.

Certain embodiments described herein provide methods directed toward the enhancement of neurologic function in a subject. The methods include delivering a neurologic enhancing effective amount of a light energy having a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range to at least one area of the brain of a subject. In certain embodiments, delivering the neurologic function enhancing effective amount of light energy includes delivering a predetermined power density of light energy through the skull to the target area of the brain and/or delivering light energy through the skull to at least one area of the brain of a subject, wherein the wavelength, power density and amount of the light energy delivered are sufficient to cause an enhancement of neurologic functioning.

Low level light therapy (also referred to herein as phototherapy) involves therapeutic administration of light energy to a patient at lower power outputs than those used for cutting, cauterizing, or ablating biological tissue, which, in several embodiments, results in desirable biological (e.g., biostimulatory) effects while leaving tissue undamaged. In non-invasive phototherapy, it is desirable, in some embodiments, to apply an efficacious amount of light energy to the internal tissue to be treated using light sources positioned outside the body.

Laser therapy has been shown to be effective in a variety of settings, including treating lymphoedema and muscular trauma, and carpal tunnel syndrome. According to several embodiments, laser-generated infrared radiation penetrates various tissues, including the brain, and modify function. In some embodiments, laser-generated infrared radiation can induce angiogenesis, modify growth factor (transforming growth factor-β) signaling pathways, and enhance protein synthesis.

In some embodiments, absorption of the light energy by intervening tissue can limit the amount of light energy delivered to the target tissue site, while heating the intervening tissue. In addition, scattering of the light energy by intervening tissue can limit the power density or energy density delivered to the target tissue site. Brute force attempts to circumvent these effects by increasing the power and/or power density applied to the outside surface of the body can result in damage (e.g., burning) of the intervening tissue.

Non-invasive phototherapy methods according to several embodiments are circumscribed by setting selected treatment parameters within specified limits so as to preferably avoid damaging the intervening tissue. A review of the existing scientific literature in this field would cast doubt on whether a set of undamaging, yet efficacious, parameters could be found. However, certain embodiments, as described herein, provide devices and methods which can achieve this goal.

Such embodiments may include selecting a wavelength of light at which the absorption by intervening tissue is below a damaging level. Such embodiments may also include setting the power output of the light source at very low, yet efficacious, power densities (e.g., between approximately 100 μW/cm² to approximately 500 μW/cm², approximately 500 μW/cm² to approximately 2.5 mW/cm², approximately 2.5 mW/cm² to approximately 5 mW/cm², approximately 5 mW/cm² to approximately 1 W/cm², approximately 1 W/cm² to approximately 5 W/cm², approximately 5 W/cm² to approximately 10 W/cm², and overlapping ranges thereof) at the target tissue site, and time periods of application of the light energy at a few seconds to minutes to achieve an efficacious energy density at the target tissue site being treated. Other parameters can also be varied in the use of phototherapy. In some embodiments, these other parameters contribute to the light energy that is actually delivered to the treated tissue and may play key roles in the efficacy of phototherapy.

In several embodiments, the invention comprises a method for enhancing axonal transport in an impaired neuron. In one embodiment, the method comprises delivering LLLT to a neuron to enhance one or more of the velocity of axonal transport, the average distance of axonal transport, and the total distance of axonal transport. In one embodiment, the LLLT has an irradiance of about 20 mW/cm² to about 60 mW/cm² at the neuron, within about a centimeter of the neuron, and/or within 2 centimeters below the dura. In one embodiment, the LLLT has an irradiance of about 1400 mW/cm² to about 4200 mW/cm² at a patient's outer surface (e.g., scalp and epidermis associated with other anatomical locations). In one embodiment, the LLLT has an irradiance of about 1200 mW/cm² to about 3600 mW/cm² just below the patient's surface (e.g., skull, subcutaneous locations associated with other anatomical locations, etc.). In one embodiment, LLLT is delivered to the patient's scalp at an irradiance of about 1000 mW/cm² to about 6000 mW/cm² in order to affect an irradiance at the target (e.g., neuron) of about 20 mW/cm² to about 60 mW/cm². The irradiance at the scalp is the irradiance at the light emitting surface in several embodiments. The wavelength of the LLLT is about 800 nm to 825 nm in some embodiments, for example 800 nm to about 815 nm (e.g., 808 nm, 810 nm, etc.)

Such parameters may be adjusted in light of relatively non-adjustable physiological patient characteristics. Skin color, presence or absence of intervening bone (and bone thickness), underlying muscle, fat, or connective tissue, blood flow and vessel density near the target site, and the distance of the target site from the light source are examples of physiological characteristics that may, in some embodiments, alter the light transmission to a target tissue. Light emitted from a LLLT device, in some embodiments, may be absorbed, reflected, or diffracted by one or more of these intervening tissues between the target tissue and the source. As such, power densities at the device are adjusted, in several embodiments, depending on how much, and the composition of, intervening tissues. For example, if the target site is the cortical surface of the brain and the desired irradiance is approximately 10 mW/cm², an emission of about 700 mW/cm2 from the light emitting surface of the device is used. Thus, to achieve 50 mW/cm² at the same target site in the same patient, an emission of about 3500 mW/cm2 from the light emitting surface of the device is used.

In certain embodiments, the irradiated portion of the brain (or other tissue) can comprise the entire brain (or tissue), or portions thereof (e.g., less than 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 25%, 50%, or 75% of the target area). In one embodiment, specific cells or cell-types are treated.

In certain embodiments, a method treats a subject suffering from Parkinson's disease. The method includes delivering light energy having a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range through the skull to at least one target area of the brain of the subject, wherein the wavelength, power density and amount of the light energy delivered are sufficient to prevent, reduce the severity, or reduce the incidence of Parkinson's disease in the subject.

In certain embodiments, the target area of the brain may be all of the brain or a specific area of the brain including, but not limited to, an area associated with a particular cognitive or motor function, an area exhibiting neurodegeneration, the cortex, and/or an area that has been affected by trauma. The subject may have a cognitive or motor impairment such as from neurodegeneration or the subject may be normal.

In certain embodiments, the predetermined power density is a power density of at least about 0.01 mW/cm². The predetermined power density in certain embodiments is typically selected from the range of about 0.01 mW/cm² to about 100 mW/cm², including from about 0.01 mW/cm² to about 15 mW/cm² and from about 2 mW/cm² to about 50 mW/cm². In certain embodiments, power densities above or below these values may be used.

In certain embodiments, the methods encompass using light energy having a wavelength of about 630 nanometers to about 904 nanometers, and in certain embodiments the light energy has a wavelength of about 780 nanometers to about 840 nanometers. In one embodiment, the light energy is preferably from a coherent source (i.e. a laser), but light from non-coherent sources may also be used.

In certain embodiments, the methods encompass placing a light source in contact with a region of skin that is either adjacent an area of the brain in which treatment is desired, contralateral to such area, or a combination of the foregoing, and then administering the light energy, including the neurologic function enhancing effective amount of light energy, as may be measured by power density, to the target area of the brain. In delivering the light, the power density may be a predetermined power density. In certain embodiments, a surface power density of the light energy sufficient for the light energy to penetrate the skull is determined. The determination of the required surface power density, which is relatively higher than the power density to be delivered to the brain tissue being treated, takes into account factors that attenuate power density as it travels through tissue, including skin pigmentation, and location of the brain area being treated, particularly the distance of the brain area from the skin surface where the light energy is applied.

In certain embodiments, a method increases the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by neurons to increase neurologic function. The method comprises irradiating neurons with light energy having a wavelength in the near infrared to visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum for at least about 1 second, where the power density of said light energy at the neurons is at least about 0.01 mW/cm².

While certain embodiments of phototherapy are described herein in conjunction with various theories and potential action mechanisms, as they presently appear to the inventors, the scope of the claims of the present application is not to be construed to depend on the accuracy, relevance, or specifics of any of these theories or potential action mechanisms. Thus the claims of the present application are to be construed without being bound by theory or by a specific mechanism.

Element to Inhibit Temperature Increases at the Scalp

FIGS. 1 and 2 schematically illustrate an embodiment of a therapy apparatus 10 for treating a patient's brain 20. The therapy apparatus 10 comprises a light source 40 having an output emission area 41 positioned to irradiate a portion of the brain 20 with an efficacious power density and wavelength of light. The therapy apparatus 10 further comprises an element 50 interposed between the light source 40 and the patient's scalp 30. The element 50 is adapted to inhibit temperature increases at the scalp 30 caused by the light.

As used herein, the term “element” is used in its broadest sense, including, but not limited to, as a reference to a constituent or distinct part of a composite device. In certain embodiments, the element 50 is adapted to contact at least a portion of the patient's scalp 30, as schematically illustrated in FIGS. 1-4. In certain such embodiments, the element 50 is in thermal communication with and covers at least a portion of the scalp 30. In other embodiments, the element 50 is spaced away from the scalp 30 and does not contact the scalp 30.

In certain embodiments, the light passes through the element 50 prior to reaching the scalp 30 such that the element 50 is in the optical path of light propagating from the light source 40, through the scalp 30, through the bones, tissues, and fluids of the head (schematically illustrated in FIG. 1 by the region 22), to the brain 20. In certain embodiments, the light passes through a transmissive medium of the element 50, while in other embodiments, the light passes through an aperture of the element 50. As described more fully below, the element 50 may be utilized with various embodiments of the therapy apparatus 10.

In certain embodiments, the light source 40 is disposed on the interior surface of a cap 60 which fits securely over the patient's head. The cap 60 provides structural integrity for the therapy apparatus 10 and holds the light source 40 and element 50 in place. Example materials for the cap 60 include, but are not limited to, metal, plastic, or other materials with appropriate structural integrity. The cap 60 may include an inner lining 62 comprising a stretchable fabric or mesh material, such as Lycra or nylon. In certain embodiments, the light source 40 is adapted to be removably attached to the cap 60 in a plurality of positions so that the output emission area 41 of the light source 40 can be advantageously placed in a selected position for treatment of Parkinson's disease in any portion of the brain 20. In other embodiments, the light source 40 can be an integral portion of the cap 60.

The light source 40 illustrated by FIGS. 1 and 2 comprises at least one power conduit 64 coupled to a power source (not shown). In some embodiments, the power conduit 64 comprises an electrical conduit which is adapted to transmit electrical signals and power to an emitter (e.g., laser diode or light-emitting diode). In certain embodiments, the power conduit 64 comprises an optical conduit (e.g., optical waveguide) which transmits optical signals and power to the output emission area 41 of the light source 40. In certain such embodiments, the light source 40 comprises optical elements (e.g., lenses, diffusers, and/or waveguides) which transmit at least a portion of the optical power received via the optical conduit 64. In still other embodiments, the therapy apparatus 10 contains a power source (e.g., a battery) and the power conduit 64 is substantially internal to the therapy apparatus 10.

In certain embodiments, the patient's scalp 30 comprises hair and skin which cover the patient's skull. In other embodiments, at least a portion of the hair is removed prior to the phototherapy treatment, so that the therapy apparatus 10 substantially contacts the skin of the scalp 30.

In certain embodiments, the element 50 is adapted to contact the patient's scalp 30, thereby providing an interface between the therapy apparatus 10 and the patient's scalp 30. In certain such embodiments, the element 50 is coupled to the light source 40 and in other such embodiments, the element is also adapted to conform to the scalp 30, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 1. In this way, the element 50 positions the output emission area 41 of the light source 40 relative to the scalp 30. In certain such embodiments, the element 50 is mechanically adjustable so as to adjust the position of the light source 40 relative to the scalp 30. By fitting to the scalp 30 and holding the light source 40 in place, the element 50 inhibits temperature increases at the scalp 30 that would otherwise result from misplacement of the light source 40 relative to the scalp 30. In addition, in certain embodiments, the element 50 is mechanically adjustable so as to fit the therapy apparatus 10 to the patient's scalp 30.

In certain embodiments, the element 50 provides a reusable interface between the therapy apparatus 10 and the patient's scalp 30. In such embodiments, the element 50 can be cleaned or sterilized between uses of the therapy apparatus, particularly between uses by different patients. In other embodiments, the element 50 provides a disposable and replaceable interface between the therapy apparatus 10 and the patient's scalp 30. By using pre-sterilized and pre-packaged replaceable interfaces, certain embodiments can advantageously provide sterilized interfaces without undergoing cleaning or sterilization processing immediately before use.

In certain embodiments, the element 50 comprises a container (e.g., a cavity or bag) containing a material (e.g., gel or liquid). The container can be flexible and adapted to conform to the contours of the scalp 30. Other example materials contained in the container of the element 50 include, but are not limited to, thermal exchange materials such as glycerol and water. The element 50 of certain embodiments substantially covers the entire scalp 30 of the patient, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 2. In other embodiments, the element 50 only covers a localized portion of the scalp 30 in proximity to the irradiated portion of the scalp 30.

In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the element 50 is within an optical path of the light from the light source 40 to the scalp 30. In such embodiments, the element 50 is substantially optically transmissive at a wavelength of the light emitted by the output emission area 41 of the light source 40 and is adapted to reduce back reflections of the light. By reducing back reflections, the element 50 increases the amount of light transmitted to the brain 20 and reduces the need to use a higher power light source 40 which may otherwise create temperature increases at the scalp 30. In certain such embodiments, the element 50 comprises one or more optical coatings, films, layers, membranes, etc. in the optical path of the transmitted light which are adapted to reduce back reflections.

In certain such embodiments, the element 50 reduces back reflections by fitting to the scalp 30 so as to substantially reduce air gaps between the scalp 30 and the element 50 in the optical path of the light. The refractive-index mismatches between such an air gap and the element 50 and/or the scalp 30 would otherwise result in at least a portion of the light propagating from the light source 40 to the brain 20 to be reflected back towards the light source 40.

In addition, certain embodiments of the element 50 comprise a material having, at a wavelength of light emitted by the light source 40, a refractive index which substantially matches the refractive index of the scalp 30 (e.g., about 1.3), thereby reducing any index-mismatch-generated back reflections between the element 50 and the scalp 30. Examples of materials with refractive indices compatible with embodiments described herein include, but are not limited to, glycerol, water, and silica gels. Example index-matching gels include, but are not limited to, those available from Nye Lubricants, Inc. of Fairhaven, Mass.

In certain embodiments, the element 50 is adapted to cool the scalp 30 by removing heat from the scalp 30 so as to inhibit temperature increases at the scalp 30. In certain such embodiments, the element 50 comprises a reservoir (e.g., a chamber or a conduit) adapted to contain a coolant. The coolant flows through the reservoir near the scalp 30. The scalp 30 heats the coolant, which flows away from the scalp 30, thereby removing heat from the scalp 30 by active cooling. The coolant in certain embodiments circulates between the element 50 and a heat transfer device, such as a chiller, whereby the coolant is heated by the scalp 30 and is cooled by the heat transfer device. Example materials for the coolant include, but are not limited to, water or air.

In certain embodiments, the element 50 comprises a container 51 (e.g., a flexible bag) coupled to an inlet conduit 52 and an outlet conduit 53, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 3. A flowing material (e.g., water, air, or glycerol) can flow into the container 51 from the inlet conduit 52, absorb heat from the scalp 30, and flow out of the container 51 through the outlet conduit 53. Certain such embodiments can provide a mechanical fit of the container 51 to the scalp 30 and sufficient thermal coupling to prevent excessive heating of the scalp 30 by the light. In certain embodiments, the container 51 can be disposable and replacement containers 51 can be used for subsequent patients.

In still other embodiments, the element 50 comprises a container (e.g., a flexible bag) containing a material which does not flow out of the container but is thermally coupled to the scalp 30 so as to remove heat from the scalp 30 by passive cooling. Example materials include, but are not limited to, water, glycerol, and gel. In certain such embodiments, the non-flowing material can be pre-cooled (e.g., by placement in a refrigerator) prior to the phototherapy treatment to facilitate cooling of the scalp 30.

In certain embodiments, the element 50 is adapted to apply pressure to at least a portion of the scalp 30. By applying sufficient pressure, the element 50 can blanch the portion of the scalp 30 by forcing at least some blood out the optical path of the light energy. The blood removal resulting from the pressure applied by the element 50 to the scalp 30 decreases the corresponding absorption of the light energy by blood in the scalp 30. As a result, temperature increases due to absorption of the light energy by blood at the scalp 30 are reduced. As a further result, the fraction of the light energy transmitted to the subdermal target tissue of the brain 20 is increased. In certain embodiments, a pressure greater than two pounds per square inch is used to blanch the irradiated portion of the scalp 30, while in certain other embodiments, a pressure of at least one pound per square inch is used to blanch the irradiated portion of the scalp 30. Other ranges of pressures for blanching the irradiated portion of the scalp 30 are also compatible with certain embodiments described herein. The maximum pressure used to blanch the irradiated portion of the scalp 30 is limited in certain embodiments by patient comfort levels and tissue damage levels.

FIGS. 4A and 4B schematically illustrate embodiments of the element 50 adapted to facilitate the blanching of the scalp 30. In the cross-sectional view of a portion of the therapy apparatus 10 schematically illustrated in FIG. 4A, certain element portions 72 contact the patient's scalp 30 and other element portions 74 are spaced away from the scalp 30. The element portions 72 contacting the scalp 30 provide an optical path for light to propagate from the light source 40 to the scalp 30. The element portions 72 contacting the scalp 30 also apply pressure to the scalp 30, thereby forcing blood out from beneath the element portion 72. FIG. 4B schematically illustrates a similar view of an embodiment in which the light source 40 comprises a plurality of light sources 40 a, 40 b, 40 c.

FIG. 5A schematically illustrates one embodiment of the cross-section along the line 4-4 of FIG. 4B. The element portions 72 contacting the scalp 30 comprise ridges extending along one direction, and the element portions 74 spaced away from the scalp 30 comprise troughs extending along the same direction. In certain embodiments, the ridges are substantially parallel to one another and the troughs are substantially parallel to one another. FIG. 5B schematically illustrates another embodiment of the cross-section along the line 4-4 of FIG. 4B. The element portions 72 contacting the scalp 30 comprise a plurality of projections in the form of a grid or array. More specifically, the portions 72 are rectangular and are separated by element portions 74 spaced away from the scalp 30, which form troughs extending in two substantially perpendicular directions. The portions 72 of the element 50 contacting the scalp 30 can be a substantial fraction of the total area of the element 50 or of the scalp 30.

FIGS. 6A-6C schematically illustrate an embodiment in which the light sources 40 are spaced away from the scalp 30. In certain such embodiments, the light emitted by the light sources 40 propagates from the light sources 40 through the scalp 30 to the brain 20 and disperses in a direction generally parallel to the scalp 30, as shown in FIG. 6A. The light sources 40 are preferably spaced sufficiently far apart from one another such that the light emitted from each light source 40 overlaps with the light emitted from the neighboring light sources 40 at the brain 20. FIG. 6B schematically illustrates this overlap as the overlap of circular spots 42 at a reference depth at or below the surface of the brain 20. FIG. 6C schematically illustrates this overlap as a graph of the power density at the reference depth of the brain 20 along the line L-L of FIGS. 6A and 6B. Summing the power densities from the neighboring light sources 40 (shown as a dashed line in FIG. 6C) serves to provide a more uniform light distribution at the tissue to be treated. In such embodiments, the summed power density is preferably less than a damage threshold of the brain 20 and above an efficacy threshold.

In certain embodiments, the element 50 is adapted to diffuse the light prior to reaching the scalp 30. FIGS. 7A and 7B schematically illustrate the diffusive effect on the light by the element 50. An example energy density profile of the light emitted by a light source 40, as illustrated by FIG. 7A, is peaked at a particular emission angle. After being diffused by the element 50, as illustrated by FIG. 7B, the energy density profile of the light does not have a substantial peak at any particular emission angle, but is substantially evenly distributed among a range of emission angles. By diffusing the light emitted by the light source 40, the element 50 distributes the light energy substantially evenly over the area to be illuminated, thereby inhibiting “hot spots” which would otherwise create temperature increases at the scalp 30. In addition, by diffusing the light prior to its reaching the scalp 30, the element 50 can effectively increase the spot size of the light impinging the scalp 30, thereby advantageously lowering the power density at the scalp 30, as described more fully below. In addition, in embodiments with multiple light sources 40, the element 50 can diffuse the light to alter the total light output distribution to reduce inhomogeneities.

In certain embodiments, the element 50 provides sufficient diffusion of the light such that the power density of the light is less than a maximum tolerable level of the scalp 30 and brain 20. In certain other embodiments, the element 50 provides sufficient diffusion of the light such that the power density of the light equals a therapeutic value at the target tissue. The element 50 can comprise example diffusers including, but are not limited to, holographic diffusers such as those available from Physical Optics Corp. of Torrance, Calif. and Display Optics P/N SN1333 from Reflexite Corp. of Avon, Conn.

Power Density

Phototherapy for the treatment of neurologic conditions (e.g., neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease) is based in part on the concept that power density (i.e., power per unit area or number of photons per unit area per unit time) and energy density (i.e., energy per unit area or number of photons per unit area) of the light energy applied to tissue appear to be significant factors in determining the relative efficacy of low level phototherapy. Certain embodiments described herein are based at least in part on the concept that, given a selected wavelength of light energy, it is the power density and/or the energy density of the light delivered to tissue (as opposed to the total power or total energy delivered to the tissue) that are important factors in determining the relative efficacy of phototherapy.

The significance of the power density used in phototherapy has ramifications with regard to the devices and methods used in phototherapy of brain tissue, as schematically illustrated by FIGS. 8A and 8B, which show the effects of scattering by intervening tissue. Further information regarding the scattering of light by tissue is provided by V. Tuchin in “Tissue Optics: Light Scattering Methods and Instruments for Medical Diagnosis,” SPIE Press (2000), Bellingham, Wash., pp. 3-11, which is incorporated in its entirety by reference herein.

FIG. 8A schematically illustrates a light beam 80 impinging a portion 90 of a patient's scalp 30 and propagating through the patient's head to irradiate a portion 100 of the patient's brain tissue 20. In the example embodiment of FIG. 8A, the light beam 80 impinging the scalp 30 is collimated and has a circular cross-section with a radius of 2 cm and a cross-sectional area of approximately 12.5 cm². For comparison purposes, FIG. 8B schematically illustrates a light beam 82 having a significantly smaller cross-section impinging a smaller portion 92 of the scalp 30 to irradiate a portion 102 of the brain tissue 20. The light beam 82 impinging the scalp 30 in FIG. 8B is collimated and has a circular cross-section with a radius of 1 cm and a cross-sectional area of approximately 3.1 cm². The collimations, cross-sections, and radii of the light beams 80, 82 illustrated in FIGS. 8A and 8B are examples; other light beams with other parameters are also compatible with embodiments described herein. In particular, similar considerations apply to focused beams or diverging beams, as they are similarly scattered by the intervening tissue.

As shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B, the cross-sections of the light beams 80, 82 become larger while propagating through the head due to scattering from interactions with tissue of the head. Assuming that the angle of dispersion is 15 degrees and the irradiated brain tissue 20 is 2.5 cm below the scalp 30, the resulting area of the portion 100 of brain tissue 20 irradiated by the light beam 80 in FIG. 8A is approximately 22.4 cm². Similarly, the resulting area of the portion 102 of brain tissue 20 irradiated by the light beam 82 in FIG. 8B is approximately 8.8 cm².

Irradiating the portion 100 of the brain tissue 20 with a power density of 10 mW/cm² corresponds to a total power within the portion 100 of approximately 224 mW (10 mW/cm²×22.4 cm²). Assuming only approximately 5% of the light beam 80 is transmitted between the scalp 30 and the brain tissue 20, the incident light beam 80 at the scalp 30 will have a total power of approximately 4480 mW (224 mW/0.05) and a power density of approximately 358 mW/cm² (4480 mW/12.5 cm²). Similarly, irradiating the portion 102 of the brain tissue 20 with a power density of 10 mW/cm² corresponds to a total power within the portion 102 of approximately 88 mW (10 mW/cm²×8.8 cm²), and with the same 5% transmittance, the incident light beam 82 at the scalp 30 will have a total power of approximately 1760 mW (88 mW/0.05) and a power density of approximately 568 mW/cm² (1760 mW/3.1 cm²). These calculations are summarized in Table 1.

TABLE 1 2 cm Spot Size 1 cm Spot Size (FIG. 8A) (FIG. 8B) Scalp: Area 12.5 cm² 3.1 cm² Total power 4480 mW 1760 mW Power density 358 mW/cm² 568 mW/cm² Brain: Area 22.4 cm² 8.8 cm² Total power 224 mW 88 mW Power density 10 mW/cm² 10 mW/cm²

These example calculations illustrate that to obtain a desired power density at the brain 20, higher total power at the scalp 30 can be used in conjunction with a larger spot size at the scalp 30. Thus, by increasing the spot size at the scalp 30, a desired power density at the brain 20 can be achieved with lower power densities at the scalp 30 which can reduce the possibility of overheating the scalp 30. In certain embodiments, the light can be directed through an aperture to define the illumination of the scalp 30 to a selected smaller area.

Light Source

In certain embodiments, a single light source 40 is used as a light generator to generate light, while in other embodiments, a plurality of light sources 40 are used as a light generator to generate light. The light source 40 preferably generates light in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range. In certain embodiments, the light source 40 comprises one or more laser diodes, which each provide coherent light. In embodiments in which the light from the light source 40 is coherent, the emitted light may produce “speckling” due to coherent interference of the light. This speckling comprises intensity spikes which are created by constructive interference and can occur in proximity to the target tissue being treated. For example, while the average power density may be approximately 10 mW/cm², the power density of one such intensity spike in proximity to the brain tissue to be treated may be approximately 300 mW/cm². In certain embodiments, this increased power density due to speckling can improve the efficacy of treatments using coherent light over those using incoherent light for illumination of deeper tissues.

In other embodiments, the light source 40 provides incoherent light. Example light sources 40 of incoherent light include, but are not limited to, incandescent lamps or light-emitting diodes. A heat sink can be used with the light source 40 (for either coherent or incoherent sources) to remove heat from the light source 40 and to inhibit temperature increases at the scalp 30.

In certain embodiments, the light source 40 generates light which is substantially monochromatic (i.e., light having one wavelength, or light having a narrow band of wavelengths). So that the amount of light transmitted to the brain is maximized, the wavelength of the light is selected in certain embodiments to be at or near a transmission peak (or at or near an absorption minimum) for the intervening tissue. In certain such embodiments, the wavelength corresponds to a peak in the transmission spectrum of tissue at about 820 nanometers. In other embodiments, the wavelength of the light is preferably between about 630 nanometers and about 1064 nanometers, more preferably between about 780 nanometers and about 840 nanometers, and most preferably includes wavelengths of about 785, 790, 795, 800, 805, 810, 815, 820, 825, or 830 nanometers. An intermediate wavelength in a range between approximately 730 nanometers and approximately 750 nanometers (e.g., about 739 nanometers) appears to be suitable for penetrating the skull, although other wavelengths are also suitable and may be used.

In other embodiments, the light source 40 generates light having a plurality of wavelengths. For example, in certain embodiments, a band of wavelengths of (808±5) nanometers is used. In certain embodiments, the light source 40 is adapted to generate light having a first wavelength concurrently with light having a second wavelength. In certain other embodiments, the light source 40 is adapted to generate light having a first wavelength sequentially with light having a second wavelength.

In certain such embodiments, each wavelength is selected so as to work with one or more chromophores within the target tissue. Without being bound by theory or by a specific mechanism, it is believed that irradiation of chromophores increases the production of ATP in the target tissue, thereby producing beneficial effects, as described more fully below.

In certain embodiments, the light source 40 includes at least one continuously emitting GaAlAs laser diode having a wavelength of about 830 nanometers. In another embodiment, the light source 40 comprises a laser source having a wavelength of about 808 nanometers. In still other embodiments, the light source 40 includes at least one vertical cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) diode. Other light sources 40 compatible with embodiments described herein include, but are not limited to, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and filtered lamps.

The light source 40 is capable of emitting light energy at a power sufficient to achieve a predetermined power density at the subdermal target tissue (e.g., at a depth of approximately 2 centimeters from the dura). It is presently believed that phototherapy of tissue is most effective when irradiating the target tissue with power densities of light of at least about 0.01 mW/cm² and up to about 1 W/cm² at the level of the tissue. In various embodiments, the subsurface power density is at least about 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, or 90 mW/cm², respectively, depending on the desired clinical performance. In certain embodiments, the subsurface power density at the target tissue is about 0.01 mW/cm² to about 100 mW/cm², about 0.01 mW/cm² to about 50 mW/cm², about 2 mW/cm² to about 20 mW/cm², or about 5 mW/cm² to about 25 mW/cm². It is believed that these subsurface power densities are especially effective at producing the desired biostimulative effects on the tissue being treated.

Taking into account the attenuation of energy as it propagates from the skin surface, through body tissue, bone, and fluids, to the subdermal target tissue, surface power densities preferably between about 10 mW/cm² to about 10 W/cm², or more preferably between about 100 mW/cm² to about 500 mW/cm², will typically be used to attain the selected power densities at the subdermal target tissue. To achieve such surface power densities, the light source 40 is preferably capable of emitting light energy having a total power output of at least about 25 mW to about 100 W. In various embodiments, the total power output is limited to be no more than about 30, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, or 500 mW, respectively. In certain embodiments, the light source 40 comprises a plurality of sources used in combination to provide the total power output. The actual power output of the light source 40 is preferably controllably variable. In this way, the power of the light energy emitted can be adjusted in accordance with a selected power density at the subdermal tissue being treated.

Certain embodiments utilize a light source 40 that includes only a single laser diode that is capable of providing about 25 mW to about 100 W of total power output at the skin surface. In certain such embodiments, the laser diode can be optically coupled to the scalp 30 via an optical fiber or can be configured to provide a sufficiently large spot size to avoid power densities which would burn or otherwise damage the scalp 30. In other embodiments, the light source 40 utilizes a plurality of sources (e.g., laser diodes) arranged in a grid or array that together are capable of providing at least about 25 mW to about 100 W of total power output at the skin surface. The light source 40 of other embodiments may also comprise sources having power capacities outside of these limits.

FIG. 9A schematically illustrates another embodiment of the therapy apparatus 10 which comprises the cap 60 and a light source comprising a light-emitting blanket 110. FIG. 9B schematically illustrates an embodiment of the blanket 110 comprising a flexible substrate 111 (e.g., flexible circuit board), a power conduit interface 112, and a sheet formed by optical fibers 114 positioned in a fan-like configuration. FIG. 9C schematically illustrates an embodiment of the blanket 110 comprising a flexible substrate 111, a power conduit interface 112, and a sheet formed by optical fibers 114 woven into a mesh. The blanket 110 is preferably positioned within the cap 60 so as to cover an area of the scalp 30 corresponding to a portion of the brain 20 to be treated.

In certain such embodiments, the power conduit interface 112 is adapted to be coupled to an optical fiber conduit 64 which provides optical power to the blanket 110. The optical power interface 112 of certain embodiments comprises a beam splitter or other optical device which distributes the incoming optical power among the various optical fibers 114. In other embodiments, the power conduit interface 112 is adapted to be coupled to an electrical conduit which provides electrical power to the blanket 110. In certain such embodiments, the power conduit interface 112 comprises one or more laser diodes, the output of which is distributed among the various optical fibers 114 of the blanket 110. In certain other embodiments, the blanket 110 comprises an electroluminescent sheet which responds to electrical signals from the power conduit interface 112 by emitting light. In such embodiments, the power conduit interface 112 comprises circuitry adapted to distribute the electrical signals to appropriate portions of the electroluminescent sheet.

The side of the blanket 110 nearer the scalp 30 is preferably provided with a light scattering surface, such as a roughened surface to increase the amount of light scattered out of the blanket 110 towards the scalp 30. The side of the blanket 110 further from the scalp 30 is preferably covered by a reflective coating so that light emitted away from the scalp 30 is reflected back towards the scalp 30. This configuration is similar to configurations used for the “back illumination” of liquid-crystal displays (LCDs). Other configurations of the blanket 110 are compatible with embodiments described herein.

In certain embodiments, the light source 40 generates light which cause eye damage if viewed by an individual. In such embodiments, the apparatus 50 can be configured to provide eye protection so as to avoid viewing of the light by individuals. For example, opaque materials can be appropriately placed to block the light from being viewed directly. In addition, interlocks can be provided so that the light source 40 is not activated unless the apparatus 50 is in place, or other appropriate safety measures are taken.

Light Delivery Apparatuses

The phototherapy methods for the treatments described herein may be practiced and described using, for example, a low level laser therapy apparatus such as that shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,214,035, U.S. Pat. No. 6,267,780, U.S. Pat. No. 6,273,905 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,714, which are all incorporated in their entirety by reference herein, as are the references incorporated by reference therein.

Another suitable phototherapy apparatus in accordance with embodiments described here is illustrated in FIG. 10. The illustrated therapy apparatus 10 includes a light source 40, an element 50, and a flexible strap 120 adapted for securing the therapy apparatus 10 over an area of the patient's head. The light source 40 can be disposed on the strap 120 itself, or in a housing 122 coupled to the strap 120. The light source 40 preferably comprises a plurality of diodes 40 a, 40 b, etc. capable of emitting light energy having a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range. The element 50 is adapted to be positioned between the light source 40 and the patient's scalp 30.

The therapy apparatus 10 further includes a power supply (not shown) operatively coupled to the light source 40, and a programmable controller 126 operatively coupled to the light source 40 and to the power supply. The programmable controller 126 is configured to control the light source 40 so as to deliver a predetermined power density to the brain tissue 20. In certain embodiments, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 10, the light source 40 comprises the programmable controller 126. In other embodiments the programmable controller 126 is a separate component of the therapy apparatus 10.

In certain embodiments, the strap 120 comprises a loop of elastomeric material sized appropriately to fit snugly onto the patient's scalp 30. In other embodiments, the strap 120 comprises an elastomeric material to which is secured any suitable securing means 130, such as mating Velcro strips, buckles, snaps, hooks, buttons, ties, or the like. The precise configuration of the strap 120 is subject only to the limitation that the strap 120 is capable of maintaining the light source 40 in a selected position so that light energy emitted by the light source 40 is directed towards the targeted brain tissue 20.

In the example embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10, the housing 122 comprises a layer of flexible plastic or fabric that is secured to the strap 120. In other embodiments, the housing 122 comprises a plate or an enlarged portion of the strap 120. Various strap configurations and spatial distributions of the light sources 40 are compatible with embodiments described herein so that the therapy apparatus 10 can treat selected portions of brain tissue.

In still other embodiments, the therapy apparatus 10 for delivering the light energy includes a handheld probe 140, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 11. The probe 140 includes a light source 40 and an element 50 as described herein.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram of a control circuit 200 comprising a programmable controller 126 according to embodiments described herein. The control circuit 200 is configured to adjust the power of the light energy emitted by the light source 40 to generate a predetermined surface power density at the scalp 30 corresponding to a predetermined energy delivery profile, such as a predetermined subsurface power density, to the target area of the brain 20.

In certain embodiments, the programmable controller 126 comprises a logic circuit 210, a clock 212 coupled to the logic circuit 210, and an interface 214 coupled to the logic circuit 210. The clock 212 of certain embodiments provides a timing signal to the logic circuit 210 so that the logic circuit 210 can monitor and control timing intervals of the applied light. Examples of timing intervals include, but are not limited to, total treatment times, pulse width times for pulses of applied light, and time intervals between pulses of applied light. In certain embodiments, the light sources 40 can be selectively turned on and off to reduce the thermal load on the scalp 30 and to deliver a selected power density to particular areas of the brain 20.

The interface 214 of certain embodiments provides signals to the logic circuit 210 which the logic circuit 210 uses to control the applied light. The interface 214 can comprise a user interface or an interface to a sensor monitoring at least one parameter of the treatment. In certain such embodiments, the programmable controller 126 is responsive to signals from the sensor to preferably adjust the treatment parameters to optimize the measured response. The programmable controller 126 can thus provide closed-loop monitoring and adjustment of various treatment parameters to optimize the phototherapy. The signals provided by the interface 214 from a user are indicative of parameters that may include, but are not limited to, patient characteristics (e.g., skin type, fat percentage), selected applied power densities, target time intervals, and power density/timing profiles for the applied light.

In certain embodiments, the logic circuit 210 is coupled to a light source driver 220. The light source driver 220 is coupled to a power supply 230, which in certain embodiments comprises a battery and in other embodiments comprises an alternating current source. The light source driver 220 is also coupled to the light source 40. The logic circuit 210 is responsive to the signal from the clock 212 and to user input from the user interface 214 to transmit a control signal to the light source driver 220. In response to the control signal from the logic circuit 210, the light source driver 220 adjust and controls the power applied to the light sources 40. Other control circuits besides the control circuit 200 of FIG. 12 are compatible with embodiments described herein.

In certain embodiments, the logic circuit 110 is responsive to signals from a sensor monitoring at least one parameter of the treatment to control the applied light. For example, certain embodiments comprise a temperature sensor thermally coupled to the scalp 30 to provide information regarding the temperature of the scalp 30 to the logic circuit 210. In such embodiments, the logic circuit 210 is responsive to the information from the temperature sensor to transmit a control signal to the light source driver 220 so as to adjust the parameters of the applied light to maintain the scalp temperature below a predetermined level. Other embodiments include example biomedical sensors including, but not limited to, a blood flow sensor, a blood gas (e.g., oxygenation) sensor, an ATP production sensor, or a cellular activity sensor. Such biomedical sensors can provide real-time feedback information to the logic circuit 210. In certain such embodiments, the logic circuit 110 is responsive to signals from the sensors to preferably adjust the parameters of the applied light to optimize the measured response. The logic circuit 110 can thus provide closed-loop monitoring and adjustment of various parameters of the applied light to optimize the phototherapy.

In certain embodiments, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 13, the therapy apparatus 310 comprises a light source 340 adapted to irradiate a portion of the patient's brain 20 with an efficacious power density and wavelength of light. The therapy apparatus 310 further comprises a controller 360 for energizing said light source 340, so as to selectively produce a plurality of different irradiation patterns on the patient's scalp 30. Each of the irradiation patterns is comprised of a least one illuminated area that is small compared to the patient's scalp 30, and at least one non-illuminated area.

In certain embodiments, the light source 340 includes an apparatus for adjusting the emitted light to irradiate different portions of the scalp 30. In certain such embodiments, the apparatus physically moves the light source 40 relative to the scalp 30. In other embodiments, the apparatus does not move the light source 40, but redirects the emitted light to different portions of the scalp 30. In an example embodiment, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 14, the light source 340 comprises a laser diode 342 and a galvometer 344, both of which are electrically coupled to the controller 360. The galvometer 344 comprises a mirror 346 mounted onto an assembly 348 which is adjustable by a plurality of motors 350. Light emitted by the laser diode 342 is directed toward the mirror 346 and is reflected to selected portions of the patient's scalp 30 by selectively moving the minor 346 and selectively activating the laser diode 342. In certain embodiments, the therapy apparatus 310 comprises an element 50 adapted to inhibit temperature increases at the scalp 30 as described herein.

FIG. 15A schematically illustrates an irradiation pattern 370 in accordance with embodiments described herein. The irradiation pattern 370 comprises at least one illuminated area 372 and at least one non-illuminated area 374. In certain embodiments, the irradiation pattern 370 is generated by scanning the minor 346 so that the light impinges the patient's scalp 30 in the illuminated area 372 but not in the non-illuminated area 374. Certain embodiments modify the illuminated area 372 and the non-illuminated area 374 as a function of time.

In some embodiments, this selective irradiation can be used to reduce the thermal load on particular locations of the scalp 30 by moving the light from one illuminated area 372 to another. For example, by irradiating the scalp 30 with the irradiation pattern 370 schematically illustrated in FIG. 15A, the illuminated areas 372 of the scalp 30 are heated by interaction with the light, and the non-illuminated areas 374 are not heated. By subsequently irradiating the scalp 30 with the complementary irradiation pattern 370′ schematically illustrated in FIG. 15B, the previously non-illuminated areas 374 are now illuminated areas 372′, and the previously illuminated areas 372 are now non-illuminated areas 374′. A comparison of the illuminated areas 372 of the irradiation pattern 370 of FIG. 15A with the illuminated area 372′ of the irradiation pattern 370′ of FIG. 15B shows that the illuminated areas 372, 372′ do not significantly overlap one another. In this way, the thermal load at the scalp 30 due to the absorption of the light can be distributed across the scalp 30, thereby avoiding unduly heating one or more portions of the scalp 30.

FIG. 16 schematically illustrates another therapy apparatus 400 in accordance with embodiments described herein. The therapy apparatus 400 comprises a plurality of light sources 410 in a housing 420. Each light source 410 has an output emission area positioned to irradiate a corresponding portion of the brain 20 with an efficacious power density and wavelength of light. In certain embodiments, these portions overlap such that the portion of the brain 20 irradiated by two or more light sources 410 overlap one another at least in part. As described herein, the light sources 410 can be activated by a controller (not shown) in concert or separately to produce a predetermined irradiation pattern.

The therapy apparatus 400 of FIG. 16 further comprises a cap 430 interposed between the light sources 410 and the patient's scalp 30, such that light passes through the cap 430 prior to reaching the scalp 30. In certain embodiments, the cap 430 is substantially optically transmissive at the wavelength and reduces back reflections of the light. The cap 430 of certain embodiments fits to the scalp 30 so as to substantially reduce air gaps between the scalp 30 and the cap 430. In certain embodiments, the cap 430 comprises a material having a refractive index which substantially matches a refractive index of the scalp 30. In certain embodiments, the cap 430 comprises a material having a refractive index which substantially matches a refractive index of the skin and/or hair of the scalp 30.

In the embodiment schematically illustrated by FIG. 16, the cap 430 is wearable over the patient's scalp 30. In certain such embodiments, the patient wears the cap 430 and is in a reclining position so as to place his head in proximity to the light sources 410. The cap 430 is adapted to inhibit temperature increases at the scalp 30 caused by the light from the light sources 410, as described herein (e.g., by cooling the scalp 30, by blanching a portion of the scalp 30, by diffusing the light prior to reaching the scalp 30).

Example Wearable Apparatus

FIG. 19 schematically illustrates an example apparatus 500 which is wearable by a patient for treating the patient's brain. The apparatus 500 comprises a body 510 and a plurality of elements 520. The body 510 covers at least a portion of the patient's scalp when the apparatus 500 is worn by the patient. Each element 520 has a first portion 522 which conforms to a corresponding portion of the patient's scalp when the apparatus 500 is worn by the patient. Each element 520 has a second portion 524 which conforms to a light source (not shown in FIG. 19) removably contacting the element. Each element 520 is substantially transmissive (e.g., substantially transparent or substantially translucent) to light from the light source to irradiate at least a portion of the patient's brain. In certain embodiments, the light from the light source after being transmitted through each element 520 has a power density which penetrates the patient's cranium to deliver an efficacious amount of light to at least a portion of the patient's brain.

FIG. 20 schematically illustrates an example apparatus 500 having a plurality of elements 520 in accordance with certain embodiments described herein. The body 510 shown in FIG. 20 has a plurality of apertures 512 or openings which serve as indicators of treatment site locations. Each element 520 is positioned at a corresponding one of the plurality of apertures 512 and serves as an optical window. In certain embodiments, the plurality of elements 520 comprises at least about 10 elements 520, while in certain other embodiments, the plurality of elements 520 comprises 20 elements 520. In certain other embodiments, the plurality of elements 520 comprises between 15 and 25 elements 520. In certain embodiments in which the light emitting apparatus 600 is configured to directly contact the scalp, the apertures 512 of the body 510 do not contain any elements 520, but instead are indicators of treatment site locations through which the light emitting apparatus 600 is positioned for treatment.

In certain embodiments, the body 510 comprises a hood, as schematically illustrated by FIG. 20, while in other embodiments, the body 510 comprises a cap or has another configuration which is wearable on the patient's head and serves as a support for orienting the elements 520 on the patient's head. In certain embodiments, the body 510 comprises a stretchable material which generally conforms to the patient's scalp. In certain embodiments, the body 510 comprises nylon-backed polychloroprene. In certain embodiments, the body 510 is available in different sizes (e.g., small, medium, large) to accommodate different sizes of heads. In certain embodiments, the apparatus 500 is disposable after a single use to advantageously avoid spreading infection or disease between subsequent patients.

FIG. 21 schematically illustrates an example element 520 in an exploded view. The example element 520 comprises an optical component 532, a first support ring 534, a second support ring 536, and a label 538. Other configurations of the element 520 are also compatible with certain embodiments described herein.

In certain embodiments, the optical component 532 comprises a substantially transmissive (e.g., substantially transparent or substantially translucent) bag comprising a flexible material (which can be biocompatible). FIG. 22A schematically illustrates an example optical component 532 with example dimensions in inches. The bag of FIG. 22A comprises an inflatable container which contains a substantially transmissive liquid (e.g., water) or gel. In certain embodiments, the bag has an outer diameter within a range between about 0.5 inch and about 3 inches. For example, the bag of FIG. 22A has an outer diameter of about 1.37 inches. In certain embodiments, the bag has a volume in a range between about 2 cubic centimeters and about 50 cubic centimeters.

Both the bag and the liquid contained within the bag are substantially transmissive to light having wavelengths to be applied to the patient's brain (e.g., wavelength of approximately 810 nanometers). In certain embodiments, the liquid has a refractive index which substantially matches a refractive index of the patient's scalp, thereby advantageously providing an optical match between the element 520 and the patient's scalp. While the example optical component 532 of FIG. 22A comprises a single bag, in certain other embodiments, the optical component 532 comprises a plurality of bags filled with a substantially transparent liquid.

FIGS. 22B and 22C schematically illustrate other example optical components 532 in which the bag contains a composite material. For example, in FIGS. 22B and 22C, the bag contains a first material 523 and a second material 525. In certain embodiments, the first material 523 comprises a soft, substantially transmissive, thermally insulative material (e.g., gel). Example gels compatible with certain embodiments described herein include, but are not limited to, OC-431A-LVP, OCK-451, and OC-462 optical gels available from Nye Corporation of Fairhaven, Mass. In certain embodiments, the second material 525 comprises a rigid, substantially transmissive, thermally conductive material (e.g., silica).

In certain embodiments, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 22B, the second material 525 comprises a plurality of balls distributed within the first material 523. The balls of certain embodiments have diameters less than about 2 millimeters. In certain other embodiments, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 22C, the first material 523 comprises a first plurality of layers and the second material 525 comprises a second plurality of layers. The first plurality of layers is stacked with the second plurality of layers, thereby forming a stack having alternating layers of the first material 523 and the second material 525. In certain embodiments, each layer of the first plurality of layers has a thickness less than about 2 millimeters and each layer of the second plurality of layers has a thickness less than about 2 millimeters. In certain other embodiments, each layer of the first plurality of layers and each layer of the second plurality of layers has a thickness less than about 0.5 millimeter. Other configurations of the first material 523 and the second material 525 within the optical component 532 are also compatible with certain embodiments described herein.

The optical component 532 of certain embodiments advantageously deforms in response to pressure applied to the first portion 522 and the second portion 524. For example, without a load being applied, the optical component 532 of FIG. 22A has a thickness of approximately 0.41 inch, but with approximately four pounds of applied pressure, the optical component 532 of FIG. 22A has a thickness of approximately 0.315 inch. The first portion 522 of the optical component 532 advantageously deforms to substantially conform to a portion of the patient's skull to which the optical component 532 is pressed. For example, in certain embodiments, the first portion 522 comprises a conformable surface of the optical component 532. Thus, in certain such embodiments, the optical component 532 advantageously provides an interface with the patient's scalp which is substantially free of air gaps. The second portion 524 of the optical component 532 advantageously deforms to substantially conform to a light source being pressed thereon. For example, in certain embodiments, the second portion 524 comprises a conformable surface of the optical component 532. Thus, in certain such embodiments, the optical component 532 advantageously provides an interface with the light source which is substantially free of air gaps.

In certain embodiments, the optical component 532 advantageously serves as a heat sink to inhibit temperature increases at the patient's scalp caused by light which is transmitted through the optical component 532. In certain such embodiments, the optical component 532 has a sufficiently high heat capacity to provide an effective heat sink to the patient's scalp. For example, for a bag filled with water (which has a heat capacity of approximately 4180 joules/kilogram-K), a generally disk-shaped bag having a diameter of approximately 32 millimeters and a thickness of approximately 10 millimeters has a sufficient volume, and a sufficient heat capacity, to provide an effective heat sink. Thus, in certain embodiments, each element 520 advantageously inhibits temperature increases at the patient's scalp caused by the light transmitted through the element 520.

FIG. 23 schematically illustrates an example first support ring 534 with example dimensions in inches. In certain embodiments, the first support ring 534 comprises a substantially rigid material. Examples of compatible materials include, but are not limited to, plastic (e.g., acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS). As illustrated in FIG. 23, the first support ring 534 of certain embodiments is configured to be mounted in a corresponding aperture 512 of the body 510. The example first support ring 534 illustrated in FIG. 23 comprises a generally flat portion 542, an annular portion 544, and one or more protrusions 546 configured to connect to the second support ring 536, described more fully below. The generally flat portion 542 has an outer diameter which is larger than the diameter of the corresponding aperture 512 of the body 510 and is configured to be mechanically coupled to the body 510 (e.g., by adhesive). The annular portion 544 has an outer diameter which is smaller than or equal to the diameter of the corresponding aperture 512 of the body 510 and is configured to fit through the aperture 512. The one or more protrusions 546 extend generally radially from the annular portion 544 such that the overall width of the protrusions 546 and the annular portion 544 is larger than the diameter of the corresponding aperture 512 of the body 510.

FIG. 24 schematically illustrates an example second support ring 536 with example dimensions in inches. In certain embodiments, the second support ring 536 comprises a substantially rigid material. Examples of compatible materials include, but are not limited to, plastic (e.g., acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS). As illustrated in FIG. 24, the second support ring 536 of certain embodiments is configured to be connected to the one or more protrusions 546 and the annular portion 544 of the first support ring 534. In certain embodiments, the second support ring 536 comprises one or more recesses (not shown) which are configured to fit with the one or more protrusions 546 of the first support ring 534. In certain such embodiments, the first support ring 534 and the second support ring 536 interlock together to advantageously hold the element 520 in place on the body 510. In certain other embodiments, the first support ring 534 comprises one or more recesses configured to mate with one or more corresponding protrusions of the second support ring 536.

FIG. 25 schematically illustrates an example label 538 compatible with certain embodiments described herein. The labels 538 advantageously provide one or more numbers, letters, or symbols (e.g., bar codes) to each of the elements 520 to distinguish the various elements 520 from one another. In certain such embodiments, the labels 538 comprise a vinyl material and are mechanically coupled to the second support ring 536 (e.g., by adhesive) so as to be visible to users of the light therapy apparatus. Other types of labels 538 are also compatible with embodiments disclosed herein, including but not limited to, labels 538 which are painted or etched onto an outside surface of the second support ring 536.

FIGS. 26A and 26B schematically illustrate the left-side and right-side of the apparatus 500, respectively, showing an example labeling configuration for the apparatus 500. FIG. 26C schematically illustrates the example labeling configuration of FIGS. 26A and 26B from above a flattened view of the apparatus 500. The labeling convention of FIGS. 26A-26C is compatible with irradiation of both halves of the patient's brain. Other labeling conventions are also compatible with embodiments described herein.

In certain embodiments, the labels 538 are advantageously used to guide an operator to irradiate the patient's brain at the various treatment sites sequentially at each of the treatment sites one at a time through the elements 520 in a predetermined order using a light source which can be optically coupled to sequential elements 520. For example, for the labeling configuration of FIGS. 26A-26C, the operator can first irradiate element “1,” followed by elements “2,” “3,” “4,” etc. to sequentially irradiate each of the twenty treatment sites one at a time. In certain such embodiments, the order of the elements 520 is selected to advantageously reduce temperature increases which would result from sequentially irradiating elements 520 in proximity to one another.

In certain embodiments, the labels 538 are advantageously used to keep track of which elements 520 have been irradiated and which elements 520 are yet to be irradiated. In certain such embodiments, at least a portion of each label 538 (e.g., a pull-off tab) is configured to be removed from the apparatus 500 when the corresponding element 520 has been irradiated. In certain embodiments, the label 538 has a code sequence which the operator enters into the controller prior to irradiation so as to inform the controller of which element 520 is next to be irradiated. In certain other embodiments, each label 538 comprises a bar code or a radio-frequency identification device (RFID) which is readable by a sensor electrically coupled to the controller. The controller of such embodiments keeps track of which elements 520 have been irradiated, and in certain such embodiments, the controller only actuates the light source when the light source is optically coupled to the proper element 520.

FIGS. 27A-27E schematically illustrate various stages of structures formed during the fabrication of the apparatus 500 of FIGS. 20-25. FIG. 27A schematically illustrates the body 510 mounted on a mannequin head fixture 560. The body 510 is mounted in an inside-out configuration and is shown in FIG. 27A after each of the apertures 512 has been cut in the body 510. In each of the apertures 512, a first support ring 534 is connected to the body 510, as shown in FIG. 27B. In certain embodiments, a layer of adhesive (e.g., CA40 Scotch-Weld™ instant adhesive available from 3M Company of Saint Paul, Minn.) is applied to a surface of the flat portion 542 which is then pressed onto the body 510 with the annular portion 544 extending through the aperture 512. FIG. 27C schematically illustrates the optical components 532 mounted on each of the first support rings 534. In certain embodiments, a layer of adhesive (e.g., Loctite® 3105 ultraviolet-cured adhesive available from Henkel Corporation of Rocky Hill, Conn.) is applied to a surface of the flat portion 542 which is then pressed together with a corresponding surface of the optical component 532 and the adhesive is cured by application of ultraviolet light. FIG. 27D schematically illustrates the body 510 after being removed from the mannequin head fixture 560 and returned to an right-side-out configuration. FIG. 27E schematically illustrates the apparatus 500 after the second support rings 536 have been mounted to the first support rings 534 and the labels 538 have been applied to the second support rings 536.

Example Light Emitting Apparatus

FIG. 28 schematically illustrates an apparatus 600 which emits light for irradiating a patient's skin to treat portions of a patient's body underneath the patient's skin. The apparatus 600 comprises a source 610 of light having a wavelength which is substantially transmitted by the patient's skin. The apparatus 600 further comprises an optical conduit 620 optically coupled to the source 610. The apparatus 600 further comprises an optical device 630 optically coupled to the optical conduit 620. The optical device 630 comprises an optical diffuser 640 optically coupled to the optical conduit 620. The optical device 630 further comprises an output optical element 650 comprising a rigid and substantially thermally conductive material. The output optical element 650 is optically coupled to the optical conduit 620 (e.g., via the optical diffuser 640). A portion of the light transmitted through the patient's skin irradiates at least a portion of the patient's body underneath the patient's skin with an efficacious power density of light.

In certain embodiments, the source 610 comprises a laser which emits light having at least one wavelength in a range between about 630 nanometers and about 1064 nanometers. The laser of certain other embodiments emits light having at least one wavelength in a range between about 780 nanometers and about 840 nanometers. In certain embodiments, the laser emits light having a center wavelength of approximately 808 nanometers. The laser of certain embodiments is capable of generating up to approximately 6 watts of laser light and has a numerical aperture of approximately 0.16.

FIG. 29 schematically illustrates an example optical conduit 620 optically coupled to an example optical device 630. In certain embodiments, the optical conduit 620 comprises an optical fiber 622 and a protective sheath 624 around the optical fiber. The optical fiber 622 of certain embodiments is a step-index optical fiber having a numerical aperture of approximately 0.22 (e.g., a 1-millimeter diameter multimode fiber). In certain embodiments, the optical conduit 620 further comprises an electrically conductive conduit to transmit signals between the optical device 630 and the source 610 (e.g., from trigger switches or temperature sensors within the optical device 630) and/or to provide electrical power to the optical device 630 (e.g., for a thermoelectric cooler).

In certain embodiments, the protective sheath 624 comprises a strain relief apparatus 625 and a SMA connector 627 which mechanically couples to a corresponding adjustable SMA mount 631 of the optical device 630. The protective sheath 624 of certain embodiments has a plurality of rigid segments, with each segment having a generally cylindrical tubular shape and a longitudinal axis. Each segment is articulately coupled to neighboring segments such that an angle between the longitudinal axes of neighboring segments is limited to be less than a predetermined angle. In certain embodiments, the protective sheath 624 allows the optical conduit 620 to be moved and to bend, but advantageously limits the radius of curvature of the bend to be sufficiently large to avoid breaking the optical fiber 622 therein.

The example optical device 630 schematically illustrated by FIG. 29 comprises an optical diffuser 640 and an output optical element 650 (e.g., a lens). In certain embodiments, the output optical element 650 comprises glass (e.g., BK7 glass) which is substantially optically transmissive at wavelengths which are substantially transmitted by skin, but is not substantially thermally conductive. In certain other embodiments, the output optical element 650 is rigid, substantially optically transmissive at wavelengths which are substantially transmitted by skin, and substantially thermally conductive.

In certain embodiments, the output optical element 650 has a front surface facing generally towards the patient's scalp and a back surface facing generally away from the patient's scalp. In certain embodiments, the front surface is adapted to be placed in contact with either the skin or with an intervening material in contact with the skin during irradiation. In certain such embodiments, the thermal conductivity of the output optical element 650 is sufficient to allow heat to flow from the front surface of the output optical element 650 to a heat sink in thermal communication with the back surface of the output optical element 650. In certain embodiments, the output optical element 650 conducts heat from the front surface to the back surface at a sufficient rate to prevent, minimize, or reduce damage to the skin or discomfort to the patient from excessive heating of the skin due to the irradiation.

The existence of air gaps between the output optical element 650 and the scalp can create a problem in controlling the heating of the skin by the irradiation. In certain embodiments, the output optical element 650 is placed in contact with the skin of the scalp so as to advantageously avoid creating air gaps between the output optical element 650 and the skin. In certain other embodiments in which an intervening material is in contact with the skin and with the output optical element 650, the output optical element 650 is placed in contact with the intervening material so as to advantageously avoid creating air gaps between the output optical element 650 and the intervening material or between the intervening material and the skin.

In certain embodiments, the thermal conductivity of the output optical element 650 has a thermal conductivity of at least approximately 10 watts/meter-K. In certain other embodiments, the thermal conductivity of the output optical element 650 is at least approximately 15 watts/meter-K. Examples of materials for the output optical element 650 in accordance with certain embodiments described herein include, but are not limited to, sapphire which has a thermal conductivity of approximately 23.1 watts/meter-K, and diamond which has a thermal conductivity between approximately 895 watts/meter-K and approximately 2300 watts/meter-K.

In certain embodiments, the optical diffuser 640 receives and diffuses light 626 emitted from the optical coupler 620 to advantageously homogenize the light beam prior to reaching the output optical element 650. Generally, tissue optics is highly scattering, so beam non-uniformity less than approximately 3 millimeters in size has little impact on the illumination of the patient's cerebral cortex. In certain embodiments, the optical diffuser 640 advantageously homogenizes the light beam to have a non-uniformity less than approximately 3 millimeters. In certain embodiments, the optical diffuser 640 has a diffusing angle of approximately one degree.

In certain embodiments, the output optical element 650 receives the diffused light 626 propagating from the optical diffuser 640 and emits the light 626 out of the optical device 630. In certain embodiments, the output optical element 650 comprises a collimating lens. In certain embodiments, the light beam emitted from the output optical element 650 has a nominal diameter of approximately 30 millimeters. The perimeter of the light beam used to determine the diameter of the beam is defined in certain embodiments to be those points at which the intensity of the light beam is 1/e² of the maximum intensity of the light beam. The maximum-useful diameter of certain embodiments is limited by the size of the patient's head and by the heating of the patient's head by the irradiation. The minimum-useful diameter of certain embodiments is limited by heating and by the total number of treatment sites that could be practically implemented. For example, to cover the patient's skull with a beam having a small beam diameter would correspondingly use a large number of treatment sites. In certain embodiments, the time of irradiation per treatment site can be adjusted accordingly to achieve a desired exposure dose. In certain embodiments, the beam intensity profile has a semi-Gaussian profile, while in certain other embodiments, the beam intensity profile has a “top hat” profile.

In certain embodiments, the optical device 630 comprises an optical lens which receives light from the optical conduit 620 and transmits the light to the output optical element 650. In certain such embodiments, the output optical element 650 comprises an optical diffuser. In certain embodiments, the output optical element 650 comprises both an optical lens and an optical diffuser.

In certain embodiments, the optical device 630 further comprises a heat sink 660 thermally coupled to the output optical element 650 (e.g., by a thermal adhesive, such as Resinlab EP1200 available from Ellsworth Adhesives of Germantown, Wis.). By having the thermally conductive output optical element 650 thermally coupled to the heat sink 660, certain embodiments advantageously provide a conduit for heat conduction away from the treatment site (e.g., the skin). In certain embodiments, the output optical element 650 is pressed against the patient's skin and transfers heat away from the treatment site. In certain other embodiments in which the output optical element 650 is pressed against an element 520 which contacts the patient's skin, as described above, the element 520 advantageously provides thermal conduction between the patient's skin and the output optical element 650.

As schematically illustrated by FIG. 29, the heat sink 660 of certain embodiments comprises a reflective inner surface 662, a first end 664, and a second end 666. The heat sink 660 is positioned so that light 626 from the optical diffuser 640 is transmitted into the first end 664, through the heat sink 660, out of the second end 666, and to the output optical element 650. The inner surface 662 of certain embodiments is substantially cylindrical, while for certain other embodiments, the inner surface 662 is substantially conical. In certain embodiments having a conical inner surface 662, the inner surface 662 at the first end 664 has a first inner diameter and the inner surface 662 at the second end 666 has a second inner diameter larger than the first inner diameter.

In certain embodiments, the heat sink 660 comprises aluminum and the reflective inner surface is gold-plated. In certain other embodiments, the reflective inner surface 662 is roughened (e.g., by grit sandblasting) to reduce specular reflections of light from the inner surface 662.

In certain embodiments, as schematically illustrated by FIG. 29, the optical device 630 further comprises a housing 670 comprising a plurality of ventilation slots 672. The ventilation slots 672 of certain embodiments allow air flow to remove heat from the heat sink 660, thereby cooling the heat sink 660.

In certain embodiments, the housing 670 is sized to be easily held in one hand (e.g., having a length of approximately 5½ inches). The housing 670 of certain embodiments further comprises one or more protective bumpers 674 comprising a shock-dampening material (e.g., rubber). The housing 670 of certain embodiments is configured so that the optical device 630 can be held in position and sequentially moved by hand to irradiate selected portions of the patient's skin.

In certain embodiments, as schematically illustrated by FIG. 29, the optical device 630 further comprises at least one trigger switch 680. The trigger switch 680 is electrically coupled to the source 610. The trigger switch 680 of certain embodiments is actuated by pressing the output optical element 650 against a surface. The source 610 of certain embodiments is responsive to the trigger switch 680 by emitting light only when the trigger switch 680 is actuated. Therefore, in certain such embodiments, to utilize the optical device 630, the output optical element 650 is pressed against the patient's skin or against an element 520, such as described above.

In certain embodiments, the optical device 630 further comprises a thermoelectric cooler 690 thermally coupled to the output optical element 650, as schematically illustrated by FIG. 29. The thermoelectric cooler 690 of certain embodiments has a cool side thermally coupled to the output optical element 650 and a hot side which is thermally coupled to the heat sink 660. The thermoelectric cooler 690 of certain embodiments advantageously removes heat from the output optical element 650. Certain embodiments of the optical device 630 comprising a thermoelectric cooler 690 which actively cools the patient's skin thereby advantageously avoiding large temperature gradients at the patient's skin which would otherwise cause discomfort to the patient. In certain embodiments, the optical device 630 further comprises one or more temperature sensors (e.g., thermocouples, thermistors) which generate electrical signals indicative of the temperature of the output optical element 650 or other portions of the optical device 630.

FIG. 30 schematically illustrates a simplified optical device 630 compatible with certain embodiments described herein. The optical device 630 of FIG. 30 has a smaller heat sink 660 and does not have a thermoelectric cooler. As schematically illustrated by FIG. 30, the heat sink 660 of certain embodiments comprises a reflective conical inner surface 662 having a first end 664 with a first inner diameter and a second end 666 with a second inner diameter larger than the first inner diameter. In certain embodiments, the optical device 630 of FIG. 30 is advantageously smaller, lighter, and more easily maneuvered by hand than the optical device 630 of FIG. 29.

FIG. 31A illustrates two beam profile cross-sections of a light beam emitted from the optical device 630 of FIG. 29 with the planes of the two cross-sections of FIG. 31A generally perpendicular to one another and to an output optical element 650 comprising a lens. The beam diameter of FIG. 31A is approximately 30 millimeters. FIG. 31B illustrates the encircled energy of a light beam emitted from the optical device 630 of FIG. 29. Approximately 90% of the encircled energy falls within a diameter of approximately 25.7 millimeters.

FIG. 32A illustrates two beam profile cross-sections of a light beam emitted from the optical device 630 of FIG. 30 having a smooth gold-plated conical inner surface 662. The planes of the two cross-sections of FIG. 32A are generally perpendicular to one another and to the output optical element 650. The beam diameter of FIG. 32A is approximately 30 millimeters. The light beam has a high flux region near the center of the beam profile. This high flux region qualifies as a hot spot, where a hot spot is defined as regions of the light beam in which the local flux, averaged over a 3 millimeter by 3 millimeter area, is more than 10% larger than the average flux. FIG. 32B illustrates the encircled energy of a light beam emitted from the optical device 630 of FIG. 30. Approximately 90% of the encircled energy falls within a diameter of approximately 25.6 millimeters.

In certain embodiments having a smooth inner surface 662, multiple reflections of light emitted from the optical fiber 622 at large enough angles are focused near the output optical element 650, contributing to the hot spot region of the beam profile. FIG. 33 illustrates two beam profile cross-sections of a light beam emitted from the optical device 630 of FIG. 30 having a grit sandblasted conical inner surface 662. This inner surface 662 is roughened to reduce the amount of specular reflections from the inner surface 662. In certain such embodiments, the beam profile does not have a hot spot region. Certain embodiments of the optical device 630 advantageously generate a light beam substantially without hot spots, thereby avoiding large temperature gradients at the patient's skin which would otherwise cause discomfort to the patient.

In certain embodiments, the beam divergence emitted from the output optical element 650 is significantly less than the scattering angle of light inside the body tissue being irradiated, which is typically several degrees. FIGS. 34A and 34B illustrate the beam divergence for the optical device 630 of FIG. 29 and of FIG. 30 (with the sandblasted inner surface 622), respectively. The beam divergence was measured by measuring the beam profile at two separate planes and comparing the increase in beam diameter (e.g., the diameter that encircled 90% of the energy) further from the output optical element 650. In certain embodiments, the beam divergence has a full angle of about 12 degrees. The numerical aperture of the optical device 630 of FIG. 29 is approximately 0.152 and the numerical aperture of the optical device 630 of FIG. 30 is approximately 0.134, which equates to a difference of less than approximately 2.5 degrees.

Methods of Light Delivery

In certain embodiments, a patient is treated by identifying a plurality of treatment sites (e.g., at least about 10) on the patient's scalp, directing an electromagnetic radiation source to each of the treatment sites, and propagating electromagnetic radiation from the source to each treatment site. In certain embodiments, the electromagnetic radiation from the source has a wavelength within a range between about 800 nanometers and about 830 nanometers.

As described more fully below, in certain embodiments, the treatment sites are identified using an apparatus comprising a plurality of optically transmissive elements, each of which corresponds to a treatment site. In certain such embodiments, each of the treatment sites is irradiated by electromagnetic radiation from a source placed in contact with each of the optically transmissive elements. In certain other embodiments, the treatment sites are instead identified by other indicia. For example, each of the treatment sites can be identified by markings made on the scalp, or by structures placed in proximity to the scalp. Each of the treatment sites can then be irradiated. In certain embodiments, each of the treatment sites is irradiated by an electromagnetic radiation source in contact with the scalp or in contact with an intervening optically transmissive element which contacts the scalp. In certain other embodiments, the scalp is not contacted by either the electromagnetic radiation source or an intervening element.

In certain embodiments, each of the treatment sites is irradiated using a single electromagnetic radiation source which is sequentially moved from one treatment site to another. In certain other embodiments, a plurality of sources are used to irradiate multiple treatment sites concurrently. In certain such embodiments, the number of sources is fewer than the number of treatments sites, and the plurality of sources are sequentially moved to sequentially irradiate the treatment sites.

Methods of Use of Wearable Apparatus and Light Emitting Apparatus

FIG. 35 is a flow diagram of an example method 700 for controllably exposing at least one predetermined area of a patient's scalp to laser light to irradiate the patient's brain. As described more fully below, the method 700 is described by referring to the wearable apparatus 500 and the light emitting apparatus 600 described herein. Other configurations of a wearable apparatus 500 and a light emitting apparatus 600 are also compatible with the method 700 in accordance with embodiments described herein.

The method 700 comprises providing a light emitting apparatus 600 in an operational block 710. In certain embodiments, the light emitting apparatus 600 comprises a source 610 of laser light, an optical conduit 620 optically coupled to the source 610, and an optical device 630 optically coupled to the optical conduit 620. Other configurations of the light emitting apparatus 600 besides those in FIGS. 28-34 are also compatible with certain embodiments described herein.

The method 700 further comprises placing a wearable apparatus 500 over the patient's scalp in an operational block 720. The apparatus 500 comprises a body 510 and a plurality of elements 520. Each element 520 has a first portion 522 which conforms to a corresponding portion of the patient's scalp when the apparatus 500 is worn by the patient. Each element 520 also has a second portion 524 which conforms to the optical device 630 when the optical device 630 contacts the element 520. Each element 520 is substantially transmissive to laser light emitted by the optical device 630. Other configurations of the wearable apparatus 500 besides those in FIGS. 19-27E are also compatible with certain embodiments described herein.

The method 700 further comprises placing the light emitting apparatus 600 in contact with an element 520 corresponding to at least a portion of the predetermined area of the patient's scalp to be irradiated in an operational block 730. The method 700 further comprises irradiating the portion of the predetermined area of the patient's scalp with light emitted by the light emitting apparatus 600 and transmitted through the element 520 in an operational block 740.

In certain embodiments, providing the light emitting apparatus 600 in the operational block 710 comprises preparing the light emitting apparatus 600 for use to treat the patient. In certain embodiments, preparing the light emitting apparatus 600 comprises cleaning the portion of the light emitting apparatus 600 through which laser light is outputted. In certain embodiments, preparing the light emitting apparatus 600 comprises verifying a power calibration of laser light outputted from the light emitting apparatus 600. Such verification can comprise measuring the light intensity output from the light emitting apparatus 600 and comparing the measured intensity to an expected intensity level.

In certain embodiments, placing the wearable apparatus 500 over the patient's scalp in the operational block 720 comprises preparing the patient's scalp for treatment. For example, in certain embodiments, preparing the patient's scalp for treatment comprises removing hair from the predetermined areas of the patient's scalp to be irradiated. Removing the hair (e.g., by shaving) advantageously reduces heating of the patient's scalp by hair which absorbs laser light from the light emitting apparatus 600. In certain embodiments, placing the wearable apparatus 500 over the patient's scalp in the operational block 720 comprises positioning the wearable apparatus 500 so that each element 520 is in contact with a corresponding portion of the patient's scalp.

In certain embodiments, placing the light emitting apparatus 600 in contact with the element 520 in the operational block 730 comprises pressing the light emitting apparatus 600 to the element 520 so that the first portion 522 of the element 520 conforms to the patient's scalp and the second portion 524 of the element 520 conforms to the light emitting apparatus 600. In certain embodiments, by pressing the light emitting apparatus 600 against the element 520 in this way, pressure is applied to the portion of the patient's scalp in contact with the element 520 so as to advantageously blanch the portion of the patient's scalp in contact with the element 520.

In certain embodiments, irradiating the portion of the predetermined area of the patient's scalp in the operational block 740 comprises triggering the outputting of light from the light emitting apparatus 600 by pressing the light emitting apparatus 600 against the element 520 with a predetermined level of pressure. In certain embodiments, the outputting of light from the light emitting apparatus 600 continues only if a predetermined level of pressure is maintained by pressing the light emitting apparatus 600 against the element 520. In certain embodiments, light is outputted from the light emitting apparatus 600 through the element 520 for a predetermined period of time.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises irradiating additional portions of the predetermined area of the patient's scalp during a treatment process. For example, after irradiating a first portion of the predetermined area corresponding to a first element 520, as described above, the light emitting apparatus 600 can be placed in contact with a second element 520 corresponding to a second portion of the predetermined area and irradiating the second portion of the predetermined area with light emitted by the light emitting apparatus 600 and transmitted through the element 520. The various portions of the predetermined area of the patient's scalp can be irradiated sequentially to one another in a predetermined sequence. In certain embodiments, the predetermined sequence is represented by indicia corresponding to the elements 520 of the wearable apparatus 500. In certain such embodiments, the laser emitting apparatus 600 comprises an interlock system which interfaces with the indicia of the wearable apparatus 500 to prevent the various portions of the predetermined area from being irradiated out of the predetermined sequence.

In certain embodiments, a system for treating a patient comprises a support (e.g., a wearable apparatus 500 as described herein) for identifying a plurality of sites on a patient's scalp for the application of therapeutic electromagnetic energy in a wavelength range between about 800 nanometers and about 830 nanometers. The system further comprises an instruction for use of the support in combination with an electromagnetic light source (e.g., a light emitting apparatus 600 as described herein) of the therapeutic electromagnetic energy. The instruction for use in certain embodiments comprises instructions compatible with the method 700 described herein.

In certain embodiments, a system for treating a patient comprises an electromagnetic light source (e.g., a light emitting apparatus 600 as described herein). The system further comprises an instruction for use of the electromagnetic radiation source by optically coupling the source to a patient's scalp at a plurality of locations to deliver a therapeutic electromagnetic energy to the patient's brain. The instruction for use in certain embodiments comprises instructions compatible with the method 700 described herein.

Methods of Phototherapy

Certain embodiments utilizing phototherapy as described herein are based at least in part on the finding described above that, for a selected wavelength, the power density (light intensity or power per unit area, in W/cm²) or the energy density (energy per unit area, in J/cm², or power density multiplied by the exposure time) of the light energy delivered to tissue is an important factor in determining the relative efficacy of the phototherapy, and efficacy is not as directly related to the total power or the total energy delivered to the tissue. In the methods described herein, power density or energy density as delivered to a portion of the patient's brain 20, which can include an area affected by neurodegenerative disease (e.g., Parkinson's disease), appears to be important factors in using phototherapy to treat the brain 20. Certain embodiments apply optimal power densities or energy densities to the intended target tissue, within acceptable margins of error.

As described in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2004/0138727A1, 2007/0179570A1, and 2007/0179571A1, each of which is incorporated in its entirety by reference herein, this discovery has been is particularly applicable with respect to treating and saving surviving but endangered neurons after stroke (e.g., in a zone of danger surrounding the primary infarct after a stroke or cerebrovascular accident). Without being bound by theory or by a specific mechanism, it is believed that, in some embodiments, light energy delivered within a certain range of power densities and energy densities provides the desired biostimulative (or other biological) effect on the intracellular environment, such that proper function is returned to previously nonfunctioning or poorly functioning mitochondria in neurons which are at risk due to stroke. The biological effect may include interactions with chromophores within the target tissue, which facilitate production of ATP thereby feeding energy to injured cells which have experienced decreased blood flow due to the stroke. Because strokes correspond to blockages or other interruptions of blood flow to portions of the brain, effects of increasing blood flow of said blocked vessels by phototherapy, in some embodiments, may be of less importance in the efficacy of phototherapy for stroke victims. In other embodiments, treating vessels with interrupted flow may be beneficial. Further information regarding the role of power density and exposure time is described by Hans H. F. I. van Breugel and P. R. Dop Bär in “Power Density and Exposure Time of He—Ne Laser Irradiation Are More Important Than Total Energy Dose in Photo-Biomodulation of Human Fibroblasts In Vitro,” Lasers in Surgery and Medicine, Volume 12, pp. 528-537 (1992), which is incorporated in its entirety by reference herein.

A prominent feature of early Parkinson's disease is the damage to the neuronal processes (e.g., axons and their synapses) that communicate with other neurons. Axons are thin, cylindrical processes that extend so far from the neuronal cell that they require an axonal transport system to supply vital nutrients and important organelles like mitochondria and synaptic vesicles. One recent hypothesis to explain why axons and synapses are damaged in Parkinson's disease patients is a failure in the axonal transport system in dopaminergic neurons.

To determine if axonal transport is defective, two different models of sporadic Parkinson's disease have been previously used in studies by Dr. Patricia Trimmer et al. of the University of Virginia Department of Neuroscience. In these studies, axonal transport of mitochondria was found to be significantly reduced in processes of Parkinson's disease cybrids (unique human neuronal cell lines that contain the mitochondrial DNA of individual Parkinson's disease patients and which share many important attributes with injured dopaminergic neurons in the brains of Parkinson's disease patients) and similar human neuronal cells exposed to rotenone (a pesticide that damages neurons in a manner that resembles Parkinson's disease). These findings suggest that reduced axonal transport plays an important role in the early stages of Parkinson's disease.

In several embodiments of the invention, axonal transport is altered. For example, studies which are described in more detail below have exposed Parkinson's disease cybrid cells and/or rotenone-treated neuronal cells to LLLT and determined that axonal transport of mitochondria was restored. According to several embodiments, LLLT improves the supply of vital nutrients and/or organelles to axons and synapses in neurological diseases (such as Parkinson's) to compensate at least in part for the reduced axonal transport. In other embodiments, LLLT improves the removal of toxins in, for example, axons and synapses in neurological diseases (such as Parkinson's).

In several embodiments, axonal transport is enhanced by the administration of light to a neuron. In some embodiments, the neuron has reduced axonal transport, while in some embodiments, the neuron has normal axonal transport. In some embodiments, the neurons have impaired dopaminergic function and/or transport of dopamine-containing vesicles. In some embodiments wherein the neuron has reduced axonal transport, the reduction is caused by disease or injury (as discussed herein). In some embodiments, the neuron has reduced axonal transport, and said reduction is purposefully induced by chemical, physical, or other means, in order to simulate or model a disease state (e.g., rotenone induced damage to model Parkinson's disease or genetic over-expression of Amyloid proteins to model Alzheimer's disease).

In some embodiments, axonal transport can be altered by at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, or more. Axonal transport can be modified, for example, to alter transport velocity (fast axonal flow; FAF) distance, mitochondrial membrane potential, neuronal excitability, or transport of quantity of elements such as substances, such as neurotransmitters, neurotoxins, or mitochondria.

The various mechanisms involved in altering axonal transport are dependent, in some embodiments, on the wavelength of light administered. In some embodiments, the power of light is important in determining the effect and/or mechanism involved in altering axonal transport. In some embodiments, the overall energy density of light administered is important in determining the effect and/or mechanism involved in altering axonal transport In some embodiments, combinations of two or more of these parameters, as well as time and tissue heating (as discussed above) determine the effect on axonal transport.

In several embodiments, LLLT is applied to affect different cell types differentially. In some embodiments, LLLT is used to selectively affect neurons that are predisposed to, or already have, reduced axonal transport (e.g., impaired cells). In some embodiments, LLLT selectively affects neurons based on morphology. In some embodiments, LLLT selectively affects cells having long axons (e.g. sensory neurons). In some embodiments, neurons with a defined cell body (a neuritic morphology as opposed to a more non-neural morphology) are selectively affected by LLLT.

As demonstrated by the studies discussed in more detail below, light administration can enhance axonal transport. Given this context, however, it is unexpected that light administration exhibits a biphasic effect on axonal transport. In some embodiments, light administration at different parameters can reduce, slow, or even stop (reversibly or irreversibly depending on the embodiment) axonal transport. In several embodiments, administering light having a power density greater than a first threshold level, but less than a second threshold level greater than the first threshold level will increase axonal transport with respect to a patient's pre-light treatment baseline, while administering light having a power density above the second threshold level will decrease axonal transport below a patient's pre-light treatment baseline. In some embodiments, the first threshold level at the target tissue surface is less than or equal to about 200, 150, 100, 75, 50, 25, 10, or less mW/cm². In some embodiments, the second threshold level at the target tissue surface is greater than or equal to about 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, or greater mW/cm². In several embodiments, the thresholds above are representative of the average irradiance at the target tissue, while in other embodiments, the thresholds are representative of the peak irradiances at the target tissue. In some embodiments, the light can be administered continuously or alternatively in pulses for a total of no more than about 240, 200, 160, 120, 90, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 5 seconds, or less.

As such, low energy light therapy can be used to alter axonal transport in either a positive or a negative fashion, depending on the desired clinical result. Clinical presentation of a patient may suggest that administration of light to enhance axonal transport is necessary (e.g., to treat or ameliorate a reduction in axonal transport). In some embodiments, light is administered to treat neuronal degeneration, including degeneration of motor, sensory, or cortical neurons. In some embodiments, light is administered to treat Parkinson's disease. In some embodiments, light is administered to treat impaired dopaminergic function. In some embodiments, light is administered to treat Alzheimer's disease.

In contrast, clinical symptoms may suggest that administration of light is needed to reduce axonal transport. For example, light administration could be used in order to reduce axonal transport and neuronal function in sensory neurons, thereby functioning as an anesthetic or analgesic. Certain such embodiments are particularly advantageous if patients requiring anesthesia are sensitive to normal anesthetic agents. In some embodiments, light administration reduces axonal transport in order to modulate nociception (for example in patients with a hyperactive pain response or having phantom pain due to trauma or amputation of limbs). Thus, several embodiments disclosed herein are useful for as a non-drug alternative for management of pain, including chronic pain.

Moreover, light administration at parameters that reduce axonal transport are used, in some embodiments, to reduce the activity of hyperactive neurons. In some embodiments, light therapy is used to treat seizures, such as, for example, epilepsy. In some embodiments, light therapy is used to treat loss of motor control, such as with palsies or tremors.

Several embodiments described herein advantageously provide low energy laser treatment to combat a reduction of transport of desired compounds (e.g., nutrients, organelles) and/or enhance the transport of undesired compounds (e.g., toxins) in and out of a cell. In some embodiments, delivering electromagnetic radiation to brain cells, the spinal cord, and/or peripheral nerves causes an improvement of mitochondrial function in irradiated cells (e.g., neurons). Delivering electromagnetic radiation to peripheral nerves can also modulate axonal transport and mitochondrial function, depending on the desired clinical result. In some embodiments, increasing axonal transport can be also used to treat Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotropic lateral sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, or hereditary spastic paraplegia, for example. Increasing axonal transport can also be useful to clear substances such as neurotoxins, including botulinum, or neuropathic side effects from chemotherapeutic agents, such as taxanes, vinca alkaloids, or platinum-based agents for example.

In certain embodiments, the apparatus and methods of phototherapy described herein increase the cerebral blood flow of the patient. In certain such embodiments, the cerebral blood flow is increased by at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, or 25% immediately post-irradiation, as compared to immediately prior to irradiation.

In certain embodiments, the apparatus and methods of phototherapy described herein are used to treat neurodegeneration. As used herein, the term “neurodegeneration” refers to the process of cell destruction resulting from primary destructive events such as stroke or cerebrovascular accident, as well as from secondary, delayed and progressive destructive mechanisms that are invoked by cells due to the occurrence of the primary destructive event. Primary destructive events include disease processes or physical injury or insult, including stroke, but also include other diseases and conditions such as multiple sclerosis, amylotrophic lateral sclerosis, heat stroke, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, dementia resulting from other causes such as AIDS, cerebral ischemia including focal cerebral ischemia, and physical trauma such as crush or compression injury in the CNS, including a crush or compression injury of the brain, spinal cord, nerves or retina, or any acute injury or insult producing neurodegeneration. Secondary destructive mechanisms include any mechanism that leads to the generation and release of neurotoxic molecules, including apoptosis, depletion of cellular energy stores because of changes in mitochondrial membrane permeability, release or failure in the reuptake of excessive glutamate, reperfusion injury, and activity of cytokines and inflammation. Both primary and secondary mechanisms contribute to forming a “zone of danger” for neurons, wherein the neurons in the zone have at least temporarily survived the primary destructive event, but are at risk of dying due to processes having delayed effect.

As discussed above, in certain embodiments, it is advantageous to decrease axonal transport, such as by decreasing axonal transport velocity, distance, or quantity of mitochondria traveled along an axon by at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, or more in some embodiments. In some embodiments, decreasing axonal transport can inhibit neurons, such as hyperactive neurons, or promote or prevent release or uptake of a substance, such as a neurotransmitter. Reducing axonal transport could result, for example, in increased production of serotonin, increased synthesis of endorphins, increased synaptic activity of acetylcholinesterase, or inhibition of the sodium-potassium ATPase responsible for maintaining the resting potential of nerves. While any wavelength of light, such as those described elsewhere in the application can be used, in certain embodiments, light having a wavelength of from about 780-930 nm, such as between about 810-830 nm is used. In some embodiments, the power density, on time, and other parameters are as described above. In some embodiments, light having a wavelength between about 805-815 nm (e.g., 808 nm, 810 nm) is at least 10%, 25%, 50%, 75% or more efficacious than light at other wavelengths according to parameters disclosed herein.

Modulating axonal transport could be particularly advantageous to treat psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia, mania, anxiety, or attention deficit disorder for example. Decreasing axonal transport could be beneficial for analgesia to treat acute or chronic pain disorders, including neuropathic pain (such as trigeminal neuralgia, diabetic or post herpetic neuropathy, complex regional pain syndrome, or fibromyalgia, for example), joint disorders such as osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis, or to prevent withdrawal from drug or substance dependence, such as opiate or benzodiazapene withdrawal, for example. Inhibiting hyperactive neurons could be beneficial in treating disorders such as tremors or seizures. Decreasing axonal transport via light therapy may also be beneficial as a primary or adjunctive local or general anesthetic.

In some embodiments, the light therapy system can include a control circuit including a programmable controller for controlling a light source, as previously disclosed above. In some embodiments, the programmable controller automatically reprograms itself and/or recalibrates its treatment parameters in response to control signals received from, for example, invasive or noninvasive feedback sensors, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or fluoroscopic tracer kinetic analysis of a transported contrast agent In several embodiments, the programmable controller adjusts the light source based on feedback regarding the parameters of the light treatment and/or the physiological parameters of the patient, such as in vivo measurements of axonal transport, such as transport velocity, or distance traveled or quantity of elements such as mitochondria, for example. For example, in some embodiments, a protein that is transported along the axon (either in an anterograde direction, retrograde direction, or both) is labeled using a radiolabeled amino acid, which is then traced in vivo through radiographic imaging techniques. In some embodiments, proteins implicated in a disorder, such as tau or alpha-synuclein with respect to neurodegenerative disorders, are labeled and traced to monitor axonal transport. In some embodiments, axonal transport is evaluated by tracing the molecular transport motors (the proteins that carry cargo, such as mitochondria, along the axon). In some embodiments, therefore, one or more types of kinesin and/or dynein motors are traced. In some embodiments, an element, such as manganese (which is also transported on the axon) is traced using MRI. In several embodiments, mitochondria are labeled, for example with a magnetic particle, and traced in vivo, for example by MRI, to determine the effects of light administration on transport. In some embodiments, the traced particle, protein, or organelle is associated with fast axonal transport, while in some embodiments, it is associated with slow axonal transport.

As used herein, the term “neuroprotection” shall be given its ordinary meaning and shall also refer to a therapeutic strategy for slowing or preventing the otherwise irreversible loss of neurons due to neurodegeneration after a primary destructive event, whether the neurodegeneration loss is due to disease mechanisms associated with the primary destructive event or secondary destructive mechanisms. Neuroprotection shall also include maintaining neuronal health (e.g., function, viability, survivability) within the central nervous system.

The term “cognitive function” as used herein shall be given its ordinary meaning and shall also refer to cognition and cognitive or mental processes or functions, including those relating to knowing, thinking, learning, perception, memory (including immediate, recent, or remote memory), and judging. Symptoms of loss of cognitive function can also include changes in personality, mood, and behavior of the patient. Diseases or conditions affecting cognitive function include Alzheimer's disease, dementia, AIDS or HIV infection, Cruetzfeldt-Jakob disease, head trauma (including single-event trauma and long-term trauma such as multiple concussions or other traumas which may result from athletic injury), Lewy body disease, Pick's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, drug or alcohol abuse, brain tumors, hydrocephalus, kidney or liver disease, stroke, depression, and other mental diseases which cause disruption in cognitive function, and neurodegeneration.

The term “motor function” as used herein shall be given its ordinary meaning and shall also refer to those bodily functions relating to muscular movements, primarily conscious muscular movements, including motor coordination, performance of simple and complex motor acts, and the like.

The term “neurologic function” as used herein shall be given its ordinary meaning and shall also include both cognitive function and motor function.

The terms “cognitive enhancement” and “motor enhancement” as used herein shall be given its ordinary meaning and shall also refer to the improving or heightening of cognitive function and motor function, respectively.

The term “neurologic enhancement” as used herein shall be given its ordinary meaning and shall also include both cognitive enhancement and motor enhancement.

As used herein, the term “neuroprotective-effective” as used herein shall be given its ordinary meaning and shall also refer to a characteristic of an amount of light energy, wherein the amount is a power density of the light energy measured in mW/cm². A neuroprotective-effective amount of light energy achieves the goal of preventing, avoiding, reducing, or eliminating neurodegeneration, which should result in cognitive enhancement and/or motor enhancement.

The term “neurologic function enhancement effective” as used herein shall be given its ordinary meaning and shall also refer to a characteristic of an amount of light energy, wherein the amount is a power density of the light energy measured in mW/cm². The amount of light energy achieves the goal of neuroprotection, motor enhancement, and/or cognitive enhancement.

Thus, a method for the treatment or enhancement of neurologic function in a patient in need of such treatment involves delivering a neurologic function enhancement effective amount or a neuroprotective-effective amount of light energy having a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range to a target area of the patient's brain 20. In certain embodiments, the target area of the patient's brain 20 includes an area exhibiting neurodegeneration. In other embodiments, the target area includes portions of the brain 20 not exhibiting neurodegeneration. Without being bound by theory or by a specific mechanism, it is believed that irradiation of healthy tissue in proximity to the area exhibiting neurodegeneration increases the production of ATP and copper ions in the healthy tissue and which then migrate to cells exhibiting neurodegeneration, thereby producing beneficial effects. Additional information regarding the biomedical mechanisms or reactions involved in phototherapy is provided by Tiina I. Karu in “Mechanisms of Low-Power Laser Light Action on Cellular Level”, Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 4159 (2000), Effects of Low-Power Light on Biological Systems V, Ed. Rachel Lubart, pp. 1-17, which is incorporated in its entirety by reference herein.

In certain embodiments, delivering the neuroprotective amount of light energy includes selecting a surface power density of the light energy at the scalp 30 corresponding to the predetermined power density at the target area of the brain 20. As described above, light propagating through tissue is scattered and absorbed by the tissue. Calculations of the power density to be applied to the scalp 30 so as to deliver a predetermined power density to the selected target area of the brain 20 preferably take into account the attenuation of the light energy as it propagates through the skin and other tissues, such as bone and brain tissue. Factors known to affect the attenuation of light propagating to the brain 20 from the scalp 30 include, but are not limited to, skin pigmentation, the presence and color of hair over the area to be treated, amount of fat tissue, the presence of bruised tissue, skull thickness, and the location of the target area of the brain 20, particularly the depth of the area relative to the surface of the scalp 30. For example, to obtain a desired power density of approximately 50 mW/cm² in the brain 20 at a depth of 3 cm below the surface of the scalp 30, phototherapy may utilize an applied power density of approximately 3500 mW/cm². The higher the level of skin pigmentation, the higher the power density applied to the scalp 30 to deliver a predetermined power density of light energy to a subsurface site of the brain 20. As discussed above, in some embodiments, blanching of the scalp defines, in part, the amount of light emission necessary to achieve a desired irradiance at the target tissue.

In certain embodiments, treating a patient suffering from the effects of neurodegenerative disease (e.g., Parkinson's disease) comprises placing the therapy apparatus 10 in contact with the scalp 30 and adjacent the target area of the patient's brain 20. The target area of the patient's brain 20 can be previously identified such as by using standard medical imaging techniques. In certain embodiments, treatment further includes calculating a surface power density at the scalp 30 which corresponds to a preselected power density at the target area of the patient's brain 20. The calculation of certain embodiments includes factors that affect the penetration of the light energy and thus the power density at the target area. These factors include, but are not limited to, the thickness of the patient's skull, type of hair and hair coloration, skin coloration and pigmentation, patient's age, patient's gender, and the distance to the target area within the brain 20. The power density and other parameters of the applied light are then adjusted according to the results of the calculation.

The power density selected to be applied to the target area of the patient's brain 20 depends on a number of factors, including, but not limited to, the wavelength of the applied light, the type of CVA (ischemic or hemorrhagic), and the patient's clinical condition, including the extent of the affected brain area. The power density of light energy to be delivered to the target area of the patient's brain 20 may also be adjusted to be combined with any other therapeutic agent or agents, especially pharmaceutical neuroprotective agents, to achieve the desired biological effect. In such embodiments, the selected power density can also depend on the additional therapeutic agent or agents chosen.

In certain embodiments, the treatment per treatment site proceeds continuously for a period of about 10 seconds to about 2 hours, more preferably for a period of about 1 to about 10 minutes, and most preferably for a period of about 1 to 5 minutes. For example, the treatment time per treatment site in certain embodiments is about two minutes. In other embodiments, the light energy is preferably delivered for at least one treatment period of at least about five minutes, and more preferably for at least one treatment period of at least ten minutes. The minimum treatment time of certain embodiments is limited by the biological response time (which is on the order of microseconds). The maximum treatment time of certain embodiments is limited by heating and by practical treatment times. The light energy can be pulsed during the treatment period or the light energy can be continuously applied during the treatment period.

In certain embodiments, the treatment may be terminated after one treatment period, while in other embodiments, the treatment may be repeated for at least two treatment periods. The time between subsequent treatment periods is preferably at least about five minutes, more preferably at least about 1 to 2 days, and most preferably at least about one week. In certain embodiments in which treatment is performed over the course of multiple days, the apparatus 10 is wearable over multiple concurrent days (e.g., embodiments of FIGS. 1, 3, 9A, 10, and 13). The length of treatment time and frequency of treatment periods can depend on several factors, including the functional recovery of the patient and the results of imaging analysis of the infarct. In certain embodiments, one or more treatment parameters can be adjusted in response to a feedback signal from a device (e.g., magnetic resonance imaging) monitoring the patient.

During the treatment, the light energy may be continuously provided, or it may be pulsed. If the light is pulsed, the pulses range, in some embodiments from at least about 10 nanoseconds long to about 50 milliseconds long, including about 10-100 ns, 100-500 ns, 500 ns-1 ms, 1 ms-5 ms, 5-10 ms, 10-15 ms, 15-20 ms, 20-30 ms, 30-40 ms, 40-50 ms, and overlapping ranges thereof. In some embodiments, pulses are administered for 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4 or 4.5 milliseconds. In some embodiments, pulses are administered for longer than 50 milliseconds (e.g., 100 ms, 250 ms, 500 ms, 1 s, or higher). Pulsed light is administered, in some embodiments at a frequency up to 100 kHz. In several embodiments, lower frequencies are used, such as, for example, frequencies ranging from 50-150 Hz. In some embodiments, pulsed light is administered at about 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 130, and 140 Hz. Frequencies less than 50 Hz and greater than 150 Hz are used in some embodiments. For example, in several embodiments, frequencies that match endogenous neural frequencies (e.g., Alpha, Beta, Delta, and/or Theta waves) are used. In some embodiments pulsed light administration is preferred because of a reduction in the amount of heat generated in the target tissue. Parameters may be chosen, in some embodiments to minimize heat. However, certain embodiments are particularly unexpected because the parameters used to generate the most robust effects are not the same as those that would minimize heat generation. As such, certain such embodiments may more specifically target and affect a biological system (e.g. the axonal transport mechanisms) as compared to those parameters used to minimize heat.

In some embodiments, pulses described herein are administered in an on/off cycle (e.g., a duty cycle). In some embodiments, the duty cycle is between 0.01% to about 99.9% (e.g., between about 0.01%-0.1%, 0.1%-1%, 1%-10%, 10%-20%, 20%-30%, 30%-40%, 40%-50%, 50%-60%, 60%-70%, 70%-80%, 80%-90%, 90%-99.9%, and overlapping ranges thereof). In one embodiment, the on time is 2 ms and the off time is 1-2 ms. In another embodiment, the on time is about 1-5 ms and the off time is about 1-5 ms. In some embodiments, the on/off times are variable during the course of treatment. For example, in one embodiment, the on or off times are increased (or decreased) by about 10-50% during the course of treatment.

In several embodiments, the duty cycle is synchronized with natural neuronal rhythms. Mammalian neurons generate wave patterns of neuronal firing that can be detected and measured by electroencephalography. The primary types of neuronal waves that have been detected are Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Theta waves.

Alpha waves occur in a frequency range of 8-13 Hz and are associated with states of low levels of activity or non-arousal. For example, after completing a task and taking a period of rest, alpha waves may be generated. Alpha waves are also associated with meditative states. Thus, in several embodiments synchronizing the duty cycle with alpha waves enhances the normal effects associated with generation of alpha waves, e.g., relaxation, deeper thought etc.

Beta waves occur at frequencies ranging from about 13-40 Hz are associated with higher levels of arousal and active engagement in mental activities. In several embodiments, synchronizing the duty cycle with beta waves enhances the ability of an individual performing tasks associated with beta wave generation. For example, in some embodiments, LLLT synchronized with beta waves enables longer periods of concentration, enhanced mental acuity, reduced fatigue after periods of mental activity, etc.

Delta waves occur at frequencies ranging from about 1-4 Hz, the slowest frequency of the various brain waves. Deep sleep commonly generates Delta waves. In several embodiments, LLLT synchronized with delta waves generation enhances the depth and/or perceived quality of sleep and/or deep relaxation. In some embodiments, LLLT is used as a sleep aid, such as for insomniacs, light sleepers, or those who have difficulty sleeping through the night. In some embodiments, LLLT can be used to enhance sleep sessions of those individuals having uncommon or variable work hours (e.g., work at night and sleep during the day).

Theta waves occur at frequencies ranging from about 4-7 Hz. Theta waves may be generated when a person is aware of his/her surroundings but daydreaming or otherwise not focusing on any task in particular. Is some cases, theta waves are associated with free flow of thought and generation of creative ideas. In several embodiments, LLLT synchronized with theta waves enhances an individual's creative thought process enables an individual to generate new ideas and/or thoughts. Such embodiments can be used to, among other applications, assist in overcoming mental blocks (e.g., writer's block or phobias), enhance the efficiency of brainstorming sessions, and/or assist individuals or groups in problem solving.

In some embodiments, the duty cycle is selected to reflect cellular refractory periods.

The course of the action potential in excitable cells comprises five parts: the rising phase, the peak phase, the falling phase, the undershoot phase, and finally the refractory period. During the rising phase the membrane potential depolarizes (becomes more positive, typically from a resting potential of about −70 mV), due to opening of voltage-gated sodium ion channels open, which increases membrane conductance for sodium ions. Once the membrane potential reaches a depolarization threshold (about −35 to about −40 mV) the opening of sodium channels will cause other sodium channels open, resulting in a feed-forward rapid depolarization. The point at which depolarization stops is called the peak phase. At this stage, the membrane potential reaches a maximum. Subsequent to this, there is a falling phase. During this stage the membrane potential hyperpolarizes (becomes more negative). During repolarization, voltage-gated sodium ion channels inactivate and voltage-gated potassium channels activate. Both the sodium ion channels closing and the potassium ion channels opening act to repolarize the cell's membrane potential back towards the resting membrane potential.

However, the potassium conductance has a lag time that leads to a short hyperpolarization, known as the undershoot phase. This period of hyperpolarization is known as the refractory period. Eventually this potassium conductance drops and the exits the refractory period and cell returns to its resting membrane potential.

There are two refractory periods in excitable cells (e.g., neurons). The absolute refractory period is the time period after a first stimulation during which a second stimulation of the cell will not trigger an action potential (or other cellular response normally associated with a stimulus). The absolute refractory period of neurons typically range from about 1 to about 3 milliseconds. Thus, in several embodiments, the duty cycle is adjusted to provide light administration to the cells (e.g., neurons) approximately every 1-3 milliseconds, or in sync with the absolute refractory period.

The relative refractory period is the time period after a first stimulation during which the probability of a second stimulation of the cell triggering an action potential (or other cellular response normally associated with a stimulus) is reduced, but an action potential may still be possible. The relative refractory period immediately follows the absolute refractory period. During the relative refractory period, a stimulus will need to be proportionally greater (to account for the hyperpolarization) in order to cause the membrane potential of the cell to reach the depolarization threshold, and initiate a new action potential. Absent an additional stimulus, the potassium conductance will return to its resting value and the membrane potential of the cell will return to equilibrium, thus ending the relative refractory period.

As the refractory period is varied depending on the cell type, greater or lesser refractory periods can be accommodated by adjusting the duty cycle. For example, in some embodiments, the duty cycle is adjusted to provide light to the cell approximately every 0.8-1.0 seconds, 1.0-1.2 seconds, 1.2-1.4 seconds, 1.4-1.6 seconds, 1.6-1.8 seconds, 1.8-2.0 seconds, 2.0-2.2 seconds, 2.2-2.4 seconds, 2.4-2.6 seconds, 2.6-2.8 seconds, and 2.8-3.0 seconds (and overlapping ranges thereof). Synchronization of LLLT, in some embodiments, enhances the function of the exposed cells. For example, synchronizing light administration with the refractory period of a sensory neuron, in some embodiments, increases the rate of sensory transmission in the neuron, which, in some embodiments, produces heightened sensory capacity. Additionally, synchronization of LLLT with the refractory period of motor neurons, in some embodiments, aids in normalization of neuronal firing rates, thereby increasing fine motor control and/or serving as a therapy or palsies or other such uncontrolled muscle movements.

In some embodiments, LLLT, whether continuous or pulsed, is administered for a total time (duration per treatment session at one site) of about 1 second to 10 minutes, e.g., between about 1 s to 25 s, 25 s-50 s, 50 s-100 s, 1 minute-2 minutes, 2 minutes-3 minutes, 3 minutes-4 minutes, 4 minutes-5 minutes, 5 minutes-6 minutes, 6 minutes-7 minutes, 7 minutes-8 minutes, 8 minutes-9 minutes, 9 minutes-10 minutes, or greater. In some embodiments, the total time (duration per treatment session at one site) is about 40, 50, 60, 70, 60, 90 100, 110, 120 seconds. In several embodiments, treatment is performed on one or more sites (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 or more sites). In several embodiments, multiple treatment sessions are performed at different times (e.g., different hours, different days, etc.) on the same site (or at different sites).

In one embodiment, the invention comprises delivering pulsed LLLT to a neuron (or group neurons) every 1-2 milliseconds. In one embodiment, the invention comprises delivering pulsed LLLT to a cell (e.g., an excitable cell such as a neuron) in synchronicity with the activation or deactivation of an ion channel (e.g., sodium, calcium or potassium channel). In some embodiments, the LLLT is administered before an action potential occurs. In several embodiments, LLLT is administered in sync with the depolarization phase of the action potential. In several embodiments, LLLT is administered in sync with the peak phase of the action potential. In several embodiments, LLLT is administered in sync with the repolarization phase of the action potential. In several embodiments, LLLT is administered in sync with the hyperpolarization phase of the action potential. In some embodiments, the LLLT is administered during the relative refractory period, while in some embodiments, the LLLT is administered during the relative refractory period. In several embodiments, LLLT is administered for a period of time that overlaps one or more phases of an action potential. In several embodiments, LLLT is administered in sync, preceding, or following a particular action potential event. For example, in some embodiments, LLLT is administered based on the opening of sodium channels, while in some embodiments, LLLT is administered based on the potassium induced hyperpolarization of the cell membrane.

In certain embodiments in which the target brain tissue to be irradiated is deeper within the brain (e.g., 4 centimeters or more below the dura), pulsing can be used to achieve the desired power densities at the target brain tissue while reducing the heat load and the corresponding temperature increases. For example, pulsing may be used to irradiate the substantia nigra of the patient's brain. In certain other embodiments, continuous wave light may also be used.

In certain embodiments, the phototherapy is combined with other types of treatments for an improved therapeutic effect. Treatment can comprise directing light through the scalp of the patient to a target area of the brain concurrently with applying an electromagnetic field to the brain. In such embodiments, the light has an efficacious power density at the target area and the electromagnetic field has an efficacious field strength. For example, the apparatus 50 can also include systems for electromagnetic treatment, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,042,531 issued to Holcomb, which is incorporated in its entirety by reference herein. In certain embodiments, the electromagnetic field comprises a magnetic field, while in other embodiments, the electromagnetic field comprises a radio-frequency (RF) field. As another example, treatment can comprise directing an efficacious power density of light through the scalp of the patient to a target area of the brain concurrently with applying an efficacious amount of ultrasonic energy to the brain. Such a system can include systems for ultrasonic treatment, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,054,470 issued to Fry et al., which is incorporated in its entirety by reference herein.

PHOTOTHERAPY EXAMPLES Example 1

An in vitro experiment was done to demonstrate one effect of phototherapy on neurons, namely the effect on ATP production. Normal Human Neural Progenitor (NHNP) cells were obtained cryopreserved through Clonetics of Baltimore, Md., catalog #CC-2599. The NHNP cells were thawed and cultured on polyethyleneimine (PEI) with reagents provided with the cells, following the manufacturers' instructions. The cells were plated into 96 well plates (black plastic with clear bottoms, Becton Dickinson of Franklin Lakes, N.J.) as spheroids and allowed to differentiate into mature neurons over a period of two weeks.

A Photo Dosing Assembly (PDA) was used to provide precisely metered doses of laser light to the NHNP cells in the 96 well plates. The PDA included a Nikon Diaphot inverted microscope (Nikon of Melville, N.Y.) with a LUDL motorized x,y,z stage (Ludl Electronic Products of Hawthorne, N.Y.). An 808 nanometer laser was routed into the rear epi-fluorescent port on the microscope using a custom designed adapter and a fiber optic cable. Diffusing lenses were mounted in the path of the beam to create a “speckled” pattern, which was intended to mimic in vivo conditions after a laser beam passed through human skin. The beam diverged to a 25 millimeter diameter circle when it reached the bottom of the 96 well plates. This dimension was chosen so that a cluster of four adjacent wells could be lased at the same time. Cells were plated in a pattern such that a total of 12 clusters could be lased per 96 well plate. Stage positioning was controlled by a Silicon Graphics workstation and laser timing was performed by hand using a digital timer. The measured power density passing through the plate for the NHNP cells was 50 mW/cm².

Two independent assays were used to measure the effects of 808 nanometer laser light on the NHNP cells. The first was the CellTiter-Glo Luminescent Cell Viability Assay (Promega of Madison, Wis.). This assay generates a “glow-type” luminescent signal produced by a luciferase reaction with cellular ATP. The CellTiter-Glo reagent is added in an amount equal to the volume of media in the well and results in cell lysis followed by a sustained luminescent reaction that was measured using a Reporter luminometer (Turner Biosystems of Sunnyvale, Calif.). Amounts of ATP present in the NHNP cells were quantified in Relative Luminescent Units (RLUs) by the luminometer.

The second assay used was the alamarBlue assay (Biosource of Camarillo, Calif.). The internal environment of a proliferating cell is more reduced than that of a non-proliferating cell. Specifically, the ratios of NADPH/NADP, FADH/FAD, FMNH/FMN and NADH/NAD, increase during proliferation. In several embodiments, laser irradiation may have an effect on one or more of these ratios. Compounds such as alamarBlue are reduced by these metabolic intermediates and can be used to monitor cellular states. The oxidization of alamarBlue is accompanied by a measurable shift in color. In its unoxidized state, alamarBlue appears blue; when oxidized, the color changes to red. To quantify this shift, a 340PC microplate reading spectrophotometer (Molecular Devices of Sunnyvale, Calif.) was used to measure the absorbance of a well containing NHNP cells, media and alamarBlue diluted 10% v/v. The absorbance of each well was measured at 570 nanometers and 600 nanometers and the percent reduction of alamarBlue was calculated using an equation provided by the manufacturer.

The two metrics described above, (RLUs and % Reduction) were then used to compare NHNP culture wells that had been lased with 50 mW/cm² at a wavelength of 808 nanometers. For the CellTiter-Glo assay, 20 wells were lased for 1 second and compared to an unlased control group of 20 wells. The CellTiter-Glo reagent was added 10 minutes after lasing completed and the plate was read after the cells had lysed and the luciferase reaction had stabilized. The average RLUs measured for the control wells was 3808−/−3394 while the laser group showed a two-fold increase in ATP content to 7513−/−6109. The standard deviations were somewhat high due to the relatively small number of NHNP cells in the wells (approximately 100 per well from visual observation), but a student's unpaired t-test was performed on the data with a resulting p-value of 0.02 indicating that the two-fold change is statistically significant.

The alamarBlue assay was performed with a higher cell density and a lasing time of 5 seconds. The plating density (calculated to be between 7,500-26,000 cells per well based on the certificate of analysis provided by the manufacturer) was difficult to determine since some of the cells had remained in the spheroids and had not completely differentiated. Because plating conditions were identical, wells from the same plate were compared. The alamarBlue was added immediately after lasing and the absorbance was measured 9.5 hours later. The average measured values for percent reduction were 22%+/−7.3% for the 8 lased wells and 12.4%+/−5.9% for the 3 unlased control wells (p-value=0.076). Thus, in several embodiments, the laser treatment results in a positive metabolic effect in the lased cells.

Several embodiments of the invention increase ATP concentrations, and are particularly advantageous because increases in cellular ATP concentration and a more reduced state within the cell are both related to cellular metabolism and are considered to be indications that the cell is viable and healthy. In some embodiments, positive effects of laser irradiation on cellular metabolism in in-vitro neuronal cell cultures are achieved.

Example 2

In a second set of experiments, transcranial laser therapy for stroke was investigated using a low-energy infrared laser to treat behavioral deficits in a rabbit small clot embolic stroke model (RSCEM). This example is described in more detail by P. A. Lapchak et al., “Transcranial Infrared Laser Therapy Improves Clinical Rating Scores After Embolic Strokes in Rabbits,” Stroke, Vol. 35, pp. 1985-1988 (2004), which is incorporated in its entirety by reference herein.

RSCEM was produced by injection of blood clots into the cerebral vasculature of anesthetized male New Zealand White rabbits, resulting in ischemia-induced behavioral deficits that can be measured quantitatively with a dichotomous rating scale. In the absence of treatment, small numbers of microclots caused no grossly apparent neurologic dysfunction while large numbers of microclots invariably caused encephalopathy or death. Behaviorally normal rabbits did not have any signs of impairment, whereas behaviorally abnormal rabbits had loss of balance, head leans, circling, seizure-type activity, or limb paralysis.

For laser treatment, a laser probe was placed in direct contact with the skin. The laser probe comprised a low-energy laser (wavelength of 808±5 nanometers) fitted with an OZ Optics Ltd. fiber-optic cable and a laser probe with a diameter of approximately 2 centimeters. Instrument design studies showed that these specifications would allow for laser penetration of the rabbit skull and brain to a depth of 2.5 to 3 centimeters, and that the laser beam would encompass the majority of the brain if placed on the skin surface posterior to bregma on the midline. Although the surface skin temperature below the probe was elevated by up to 3° C., the focal brain temperature directly under the laser probe was increased by 0.8° C. to 1.8° C. during the 10-minute laser treatment using the 25 mW/cm² energy setting. Focal brain temperature returned to normal within 60 minutes of laser treatment.

The quantitative relationship between clot dose and behavioral or neurological deficits was evaluated using logistic (S-shaped) curves fitted by computer to the quantal dose-response data. These parameters are measures of the amount of microclots (in mg) that produced neurologic dysfunction in 50% of a group of animals (P₅₀). A separate curve was generated for each treatment condition, with a statistically significant increase in the P₅₀ value compared with control being indicative of a behavioral improvement. The data were analyzed using the t test, which included the Bonferroni correction when appropriate.

To determine if laser treatment altered physiological variables, 14 rabbits were randomly divided into 2 groups, a control group and a laser-treated group (25 mW/cm² for 10 minutes). Blood glucose levels were measured for all embolized rabbits using a Bayer Elite XL 3901B Glucometer, and body temperature was measured using a Braun Thermoscan Type 6013 digital thermometer. Within 60 minutes of embolization, there was an increase in blood glucose levels in both the control group and the laser-treated group that was maintained for the 2 hours post-embolization observation time. Blood glucose levels returned to control levels by 24 hours, regardless of the extent of stroke-induced behavioral deficits. Laser treatment did not significantly affect glucose levels at any time. Neither embolization nor laser treatment significantly affected body temperature in either group of rabbits.

FIG. 17A is a graph for the percentage of the population which was either abnormal or dead as a function of the clot weight in milligrams for laser treatment of 7.5 mW/cm² for a treatment duration of 2 minutes. As shown by FIG. 17A, the control curve (dotted line) has a P₅₀ value of 0.97±0.19 mg (n=23). Such laser treatment initiated 3 hours after the stroke significantly improved behavioral performance, with the P₅₀ value increased to 2.21±0.54 mg (n=28, *P=0/05) (solid line). The effect was durable and was measurable 3 weeks after embolization. However, the same setting did not improve behavior if there was a long delay (24 hours) after embolization (dashed line) (P₅₀=1.23±0.15 mg, n=32).

In several embodiments, as discussed above, LLLT is advantageous if started soon after an injury (e.g., traumatic injury or onset of stroke). In several embodiments, treatment is administered as soon as possible after an injury. In some embodiments, a plurality of additional treatments are made after an initial treatment. In some embodiments, incorporation of a delay before, during, or after therapy (e.g., prior to a second treatment) is beneficial. For example, in some embodiments, improved therapeutic effects are obtained if there a purposeful delay between an injury and the inception of treatment. In some embodiments, outcomes are improved if an immediate treatment is made, followed by a delay prior to a second treatment. In several embodiments, the delay is on the order of hours, for example, between about 1 and 8 hours after an injury, including 1-2 hours, 2-4 hours, 3-5 hours, 4-6 hours, 5-7 hours, and 7-8 hours after injury. In some embodiments, treatment is delayed between about 6 to 24 hours after injury (including 6-8 hours, 8-10 hours, 10-12 hours, 12-14 hours, 14-18 hours, 18-20 hours, 20-22 hours and 22-24 hours, and overlapping ranges thereof). In some embodiments, treatment is delayed from 24-48 hours. In several embodiments the delays are tailored to the response characteristics of an individual patient (e.g., tailored therapy).

FIG. 17B is a graph for the percentage of the population which was either abnormal or dead as a function of the clot weight in milligrams for laser treatment of 25 mW/cm2 for a treatment duration of 10 minutes. As shown by FIG. 17B, the control curve (dotted line) has a P₅₀ value of 1.10±0.17 mg (n=27). Such laser treatment initiated 1 (dashed line) or 6 (solid line) hours after embolization also significantly increased behavioral performance, with the P₅₀ value increased to 2.02±0.46 mg (n=18, *P<0.05) and 2.98±0.65 mg (n=26, *P<0.05), respectively.

FIG. 18 is a graph showing the therapeutic window for laser-induced behavioral improvements after small-clot embolic strokes in rabbits. Results are shown as clinical rating score P₅₀ (mg clot) given as mean±SEM for the number of rabbits per time point (number in brackets) for laser treatment initiated 1, 3, 6, or 24 hours after embolization as shown on the x-axis. The horizontal line represents the mean of the control P₅₀ values (*p<0.05).

The results in the RSCEM showed that laser treatment significantly improved behavioral rating scores after embolic strokes in rabbits without affecting body temperature and blood glucose levels. In addition, laser treatment was effective when initiated up to 6 hours after strokes, which is later than any other previously effective single therapy in the same preclinical stroke model. Moreover, the effect was durable and was measurable up to 21 days after embolization. In several embodiments, LLLT provides a viable therapeutic regime for the treatment of stroke (or other brain/neural injuries) that results in long-lasting improvements (e.g., recoveries) in neurological function. The magnitudes of laser-induced improvement in rabbits are similar to previously tested thrombolytics (alteplase, tenecteplase, and microplasmin) and neuroprotective compounds (NXY-059), which are undergoing clinical development. Thus, several embodiments are particularly advantageous as an alternative or supplement to pharmacological therapies. In some embodiments, LLLT works synergistically with pharmacological therapies. For example, in one embodiment, LLLT enhances the therapeutic effect of a given dose of a drug. In another embodiment, LLLT reduces the dose of a drug needed to achieve a comparable effect.

Neurologic Function Scales

Neurologic function scales can be used to quantify or otherwise characterize the efficacy of various embodiments described herein. Neurologic function scales generally use a number of levels or points, each point corresponding to an aspect of the patient's condition. The number of points for a patient can be used to quantify the patient's condition, and improvements in the patient's condition can be expressed by changes of the number of points. One example neurologic function scale used as a clinical tool for diagnosis and determining severity of Parkinson's disease is the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) which comprises various sections evaluated by interview and clinical observation. In certain embodiments, two or more of the neurologic function scales can be used in combination with one another, and can provide longer-term measurements of efficacy (e.g., at three months).

In certain embodiments described herein, a patient exhibiting symptoms of Parkinson's disease is treated by irradiating a plurality of treatment sites on the patient's scalp. The irradiation is performed utilizing irradiation parameters (e.g., wavelength, power density, time period of irradiation, etc.) which, when applied to members of a treated group of patients, produce at least a 2% average difference between the treated group and a placebo group on at least one neurologic function scale (e.g., UPDRS) analyzed in dichotomized or any other fashion. Certain other embodiments produce at least a 4% average difference, at least a 6% average difference, or at least a 10% average difference between treated and placebo groups on at least one neurologic function scale analyzed in dichotomized or any other fashion. In certain embodiments, the irradiation of the patient's scalp produces a change in the patient's condition. In certain such embodiments, the change in the patient's condition corresponds to a change in the number of points indicative of the patient's condition. In certain such embodiments, the irradiation produces a change of one point, a change of two points, a change of three points, or a change of more than three points on a neurologic function scale.

Possible Action Mechanisms

The following section discusses theories and potential action mechanisms, as they presently appear to the inventors, for certain embodiments of phototherapy described herein. The scope of the claims of the present application is not to be construed to depend on the accuracy, relevance, or specifics of any of these theories or potential action mechanisms. Thus the claims of the present application are to be construed without being bound by theory or by a specific mechanism.

Light is known to effect various biological systems, such as vision, regulation of circadian hormones, melanin production, and Vitamin D synthesis. With respect to specific organelles, specific wavelengths of light targeted at the cytochrome C receptor in the mitochondria can preserve mitochondrial function, as well as, reduce the size of myocardial infarcts and stroke. It has also been shown that these effects can be reproduced across multiple species. Given that there is some conservation of the mitochondrial target receptor (i.e., copper ions in cytochrome C) between species, effects demonstrated in animal models are likely to be readily translated to similar effects in human patients. These effects may be due to production of new cells (neurogenesis), preservation of existing tissue (neuroprotection) or a combination of both.

The clinical and cellular responses to light for in vivo treatment efficacy of ischemic conditions of acute myocardial infarction and stroke has been demonstrated in multiple validated animal models. As described more fully below, these effects are wavelength-specific. In several embodiments, the wavelength specificity may be dependent upon a known mitochondrial receptor (cyctochrome C oxidase). In some embodiments, targeting of this receptor results in formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), enhanced mitochondrial survival, and/or maintenance of cytochrome C oxidase activity.

In stroke, the occlusion of a major artery results in a core area of severe ischemia (e.g., with significant reductions in blood (for example, flow reduced to less than 20% of pre-occlusion levels)). The core area has a rapid loss of ATP and energy production, and the neurons are depolarized. This core of the infarct is surrounded by an ischemic penumbra which can be up to twice as large as the core of the infarct. Cells within the penumbra show less severe decreases in loss of blood flow (e.g., ranging up to 20 to 40%, or more of normal). Neurons in the penumbra tend to be hyperpolarized and electrically silent. In the penumbra, the cells undergo progression of cell death lasting from hours to days after the infarct. Also, inflammation after infarct can play a role in determining the final infarct size and anti-inflammatory modulators can reduce infarct size. The infarct is dynamic, with different parts of the infarct being affected to different degrees over a period of hours to days. Photon therapy has been implicated in a number of physiological processes that could favor cell survival in the penumbral region of a stroke.

In Vitro

The action of light on a cell is mediated by one or more specific photo acceptors. A photo acceptor molecule first absorbs the light. After this absorptive event and promotion of an electron to an excited state, one or more primary molecular processes from these high energy states can lead to a measurable biological effect at the cellular level. An action spectra represents the biological activity as a function of wavelength, frequency or photon energy. Karu was the first researcher to propose that the action spectra should resemble the absorption spectra of the photoacceptor molecule. Since an absorptive event occurs for a transfer of energy to take place, the stimulatory wavelengths of the action spectra falls within the absorptive spectra of the photo acceptor.

Karu was also the first to propose a specific mechanism for photon therapy at the cellular level (see, e.g., T. Karu, “Photobiological Fundamentals of Low Power Laser Therapy,” IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 1987, Vol. 23, page 1703; T. Karu, “Mechanisms of interaction of monochromatic visible light with cells,” Proc. SPIE, 1995, Vol. 2630, pages 2-9). Karu's hypothesis was based on the absorption of monochromatic visible and near infrared radiation by components of the cellular respiratory chain. Absorption and promotion of electronically excited states cause changes in redox properties of these molecules and acceleration of electron transfer (primary reactions). Primary reactions in mitochondria of eukaryotic cells are followed by a cascade of secondary reactions occurring in the cytoplasm, cell membrane, and nucleus. Karu defined the action spectra for mammalian cells of several secondary reactions (DNA, RNA synthesis, cellular adhesion). The action spectra for all of these secondary markers were very similar, suggesting a common photo acceptor. Karu then compared these action spectra with absorption spectra of the copper centers of cytochrome C oxidase in both reduced and oxidized states. Cytochrome C oxidase contains four redox active metal centers and has a strong absorbance in the near infrared spectral range. The spectral absorbance of cytochrome C oxidase and the action spectra were very similar. Based on this, Karu suggested that the primary photoacceptors are mixed valence copper centers within cytochrome C oxidase.

Cytochrome C oxidase is the terminal enzyme of the mitochondrial electron transport chain of all eukaryotes and is required for the proper function of almost all cells, especially those of highly metabolically active organs, such as the brain and heart. Cytochrome C has also been suggested to be the critical chromophore responsible for stimulatory effects of irradiation with infrared light to reverse the reduction in cytochrome C oxidase activity produced by the blockade of voltage dependent sodium channels with tetrodotoxin and up regulated cytochrome C activity in primary neuronal cells. It has been demonstrated by researchers (see, e.g., M. T. Wong-Riley et al., NeuroReport, 2001, Vol. 12, pages 3033-3037; J. T. Eells et al., Proceedings National Academy of Science, 2003, Vol. 100, pages 3439-3444) that in vivo, rat retinal neurons are protected from damage induced by methanol intoxication. Methanol's toxic metabolite is formic acid which inhibits cytochrome C.

Several investigators have demonstrated the increased synthesis of ATP from infrared irradiation both in vitro and in vivo. Karu has shown that irradiation of cells in vitro at wavelengths of 632 nanometers, 670 nanometers, and 820 nanometers can increase mitochondrial activity.

In Vivo

Several studies hypothesize that photon therapy would be effective in animal models for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and ischemic stroke, by virtue of the photon therapy inducing a cascade of signaling events initiated by the initial absorption of light by cytochrome C. These signaling events apparently up-and-down regulate genes, transcription factors, as well as increase mitochondrial function.

Without being bound by theory or a specific mechanism, in stroke, reduction of infarct volume may occur in one of two ways or a combination of both: (i) preservation of existing tissue (neuroprotection), and (ii) generation of new tissue (neurogenesis). A number in vitro and in vivo studies appear to support both of these potential mechanisms. The potential effects of NIR light on neurogenesis are straight-forward; it either increases the number of new cells, or it prevents the loss of new cells that are generated as a result of the ischemic insult. Neuroprotection can result from at least three mechanisms: (i) direct stimulation of tissue survival; (ii) indirect stimulation of tissue survival (e.g., increased growth factor activity); and (iii) decrease in toxic factors.

FIG. 36 is a graph which shows mediators responsible for ischemic stroke tissue damage and the time points at which they occur. FIG. 36 illustrates several potential places where photon therapy could potentially intervene to reduce infarct severity. Early after ischemic stroke, excitatory amino acids (EAAs) induce Ca²⁺ influx via NMDA receptor activation leading to neuronal and glial cell injury. A number of immediately early genes (IEGs) express such as c-fos, c-jun, within 30 minutes. Reactive oxygen species (ROSs) create lipid peroxidation and activated phagocytes which create further injury. ROSs damage most cellular components. Cytokines are then expressed causing migration of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) into the ischemic brain. Macrophages and neutrophils follow into the brain parenchyma. Apoptosis occurs via caspase activation which further increases stroke damage.

Preservation of existing tissue (neuroprotection) can result from direct stimulation of the tissue (e.g., by ATP synthesis or by prevention of cytochrome C release from mitochondria). Ischemia results in depletion of ATP in the ischemic zone due to lack of oxygen and glucose. The resultant lack of ATP, depending on severity, results in decreased cellular function. In extreme cases, energy depletion leads to cell depolarization, calcium influx, and activation of necrotic and apoptotic processes. Near-infrared radiation (NIR) stimulates the production of ATP in a variety of cell types in culture, and in cardiac tissue. A single irradiation of infarcted cardiac tissue results in a statistically significant 3-fold increase in tissue ATP levels four hours after treatment. The effect of NIR is prolonged long after irradiation is ceased. The prolonged effect could also be due, in part, to preservation of mitochondrial function. NIR irradiated, infarcted cardiac tissue has exhibited over a 50% reduction in damaged mitochondria. After ischemia, the myocardial tissue that is not immediately lost is in a “stunned” state, and can remain stunned for a period of days. In particular, it is the mitochondria in the tissue that are stunned. Stunned mitochondria are still intact, but with characteristic morphological changes that are indicative of mitochondria that are not metabolically active. As such, even with restored blood flow, the mitochondria are unable to convert oxygen and glucose to useable energy (ATP).

Neuroprotection can also result from direct stimulation of the tissue by preventing cytochrome C release from mitochondria. The release of cytochrome C from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm is a potent apoptotic signal. Cytochrome C release results in the activation of caspase-3 and activation of apoptotic pathways. The apoptotic cells appear as soon as a few hours after stroke, but the cell numbers peak at 24 to 48 hours after reperfusion. In rat models of stroke, cytoplasmic cytochrome C can be detected out to at least 24 hours after the occlusion. In vitro 810-nanometer light can prevent the TTX-induced decrease in cytochrome oxidase activity. In several embodiments, photon therapy maintains cytochrome oxidase activity in vivo by preventing release of cytochrome C into the cytoplasm, resulting in the prevention of apoptosis. The release of cytochrome C is regulated by the Bcl/Bax system. Bax promotes release and Bcl decreases release. In myofiber cultures in vitro, NIR light promotes Bcl-2 expression and inhibits Bax expression, which fits with the prevention of cytochrome C release data. Thus, in some embodiments, light therapy has an effect on one or more levels of the biochemical cascade that controls neuronal (or cellular) viability.

Neuroprotection can also result from indirect stimulation (e.g., by angiogenesis or by up-regulation of cell survival genes and/or growth factors). Regarding angiogenesis and stroke, recent research indicates that the reduction in cerebral blood flow (CBF) can lead to compensatory neovascularization in the affected regions. The low CBF results in the up regulation of hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and VEGF receptors. In the rat pMCAo model, infusion of VEGF results in a reduction of infarct size. In AMI models, VEGF is increased with photon therapy.

Regarding up-regulation of cell survival genes and/or growth factors, it has been shown that photon therapy may up-, and down-regulate certain beneficial genes. It is possible that these gene products can prevent or ameliorate apoptosis, which is known to occur throughout the stoke penumbra and in stunned myocardium of AMI. In AMI models, expression of the cardioprotective molecules HSP70 and VEGF are increased. In stroke, equivalent neuroprotective molecules could be up-regulated, preserving tissue and resulting in reduction of infarct volumes. A variety of factors have been implicated in neuroprotection in addition to VEGF, including BDNF, GDNF, EGF, FGF, NT-3, etc. In several embodiments, one or more of these factors are up-regulated to promote neuronal (or other cellular) survival. In some embodiments, LLLT increases one or more of the following: mitochondrial respiration, production of molecular oxygen, DNA synthesis, DNA repair, and cell proliferation.

Neuroprotection can also result from decreases in toxic factors (e.g., antioxidant protection or by reduction of deleterious factors to tissue function and survival). Regarding antioxidant protection, in some embodiments, NIR light may reduce damage induced by free radicals. By-products of free radical damage are found in damaged brain tissue following stroke. This damage is thought to be mediated by neutrophils during reperfusion injury. The nominal spin-trap agent NXY-059 (a free radical scavenger) reduces infarct size if given within 2.25 hours of a stroke (in rat, although it is more effective if given sooner). NIR light can induce the expression of catalase in AMI models. Catalase is a powerful anti-oxidant which can prevent free radical damage and, if produced in the area of the stroke, it may prevent loss via the same mechanism as NXY-059. Axon survival is known to be improved by catalase.

In addition, a number of cytokines and other factors are produced during reperfusion that are deleterious to tissue function and survival. These factors promote activity of existing phagocytic and lymphocytic cells as well as attract additional cells to the area of damage. In several embodiments, NIR light can decrease the levels of cytokines in models of neuronal damage. In particular, IL-6 and MCP-1 (pro-inflammatory cytokines) are induced in models of spinal cord damage. NIR light significantly reduces IL-6 and MCP-1 and promotes regrowth of the spinal cords neurons. IL-6 is thought to play a significant role in spinal cord damage in man also.

Regarding neurogenesis, in the last several years, it has been become well-established that the brain has the ability to generate new nerve cells in certain instances. Neural stem cells have been shown to exist in the periventricular areas and in the hippocampus. Naturally-occurring growth factors in the adult human brain can spur the production of new nerve cells from these stem cells. After a stroke, neurogenesis commences in the hippocampus with some cells actually migrating to the damaged area and becoming adult neurons.

In several embodiments, NIR light is effective because administration either increases the number of new cells that are formed, or by prevents the loss of the newly formed cells. The latter may be more significant and the majority of newly-formed cells die within 2 to 5 weeks after the stroke (rat model). In an unpublished study by Oron, NIR light has been shown to increase the survival of cardiomyocytes implanted into infarcted heart. Other studies have shown the human neural progenitor cells can be induced to differentiate with stimulation of 810-nanometer irradiation without the presence of specific growth factors that are normally required for differentiation. In several embodiments, neurogenesis occurs due to the administered infrared irradiation acting as a stimulating signal much like a growth factor. Early data from a porcine study of AMI has shown that the 810-nanometer-irradiated pig myocardium showed evidence of cardiogenesis. This result was demonstrated by the presence of significant desmin staining in the laser treated group over control, and by ultrastructural analysis which demonstrated the presence of what appears to be developing cardiomyocytes.

Wavelength Selection

The following section discusses theories and potential action mechanisms, as they presently appear to the inventors, regarding the selection of wavelengths for certain embodiments of phototherapy described herein. The scope of the claims of the present application is not to be construed to depend on the accuracy, relevance, or specifics of any of these theories or potential action mechanisms. Thus the claims of the present application are to be construed without being bound by theory or by a specific mechanism.

In certain embodiments, non-invasive delivery and heating by the electromagnetic radiation place practical limits on the ranges of electromagnetic radiation wavelengths to be used in the treatment of the patient's brain. In certain embodiments, the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation used in the treatment of the patient's brain is selected in view of one or more of the following considerations: (1) the ability to stimulate mitochondrial function in vitro; (2) the ability to penetrate tissue; (3) the absorption in the target tissue; (4) the efficacy in ischemia models in vivo; and (5) the availability of laser sources with the desired power at the desired wavelength or wavelengths. The combination of these effects offers few wavelengths to be used as a therapeutic agent in vivo. These factors can be combined in certain embodiments to create an efficiency factor for each wavelength. Wavelengths around 800 nanometers are particularly efficient. In addition, 808-nanometer light has previously been found to stimulate mitochondrial function and to work in the myocardial infarction models in rat and dog. The following discussion deals with these considerations in more detail.

Photostimulation Effects on Mitochondria

The mitochondria convert oxygen and a carbon source to water and carbon dioxide, producing energy (as ATP) and reducing equivalents (redox state) in the process. The process details of the electron transport chain in mitochondria are schematically diagrammed in FIG. 37. The chemical energy released from glucose and oxygen is converted to a proton gradient across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. This gradient is, in turn, used by the ATPase complex to make ATP. In addition, the flow of electrons down the electron transfer chain produces NADPH and NADH (and other factors such as FAD). These cofactors are important for maintaining the redox potential inside the cell within the optimal range. This process has been called the chemi-osmotic theory of mitochondrial function (Dr. Peter Mitchell was awarded a Nobel Prize in chemistry for elucidating these key processes).

There are five large components of the electron transfer chain, Complexes I-IV and the ATPase (also called Complex V), with each complex containing a number of individual proteins (see FIG. 37). One of the critical complexes, Complex IV (cytochrome oxidase), is the component responsible for the metabolism of oxygen. The cytochrome C oxidase protein is a key player in the electron transfer in Complex IV through its copper centers. In several embodiments, administered light is absorbed (photoaccepted) by one or more of these copper centers.

As an aside, cytochrome C oxidase has enjoyed a renaissance in the last few years as an important factor in the regulation of apoptosis (programmed cell death). Release of cytochrome C oxidase from the mitochondria into the cytosol is a pro-apoptotic signal.

It has been postulated by others that light can directly activate Complex IV and indirectly driving the production of ATP via ATPase (and reducing equivalents). For example, Karu studied the activation spectra of these processes and found that wavelengths that maximally stimulated energy-dependant cellular functions corresponded to the absorption bands of the copper centers in cytochrome C oxidase. FIG. 38 is a graph of cell proliferation and cytochrome oxidase activity percentage as functions of the wavelength of light used to stimulate mammalian cells. Based on these results, wavelengths of 620, 680, 760, and 820 nanometers (±10 nanometers) promote cellular activities. The 620 and 820 nanometer wavelengths are close to the strongest copper absorption maxima of 635 and 810 nanometers.

Additional data from other groups suggest that cytochrome C oxidase is an important target. Light (670 nanometers) can rescue primary neurons from the toxic effects of the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin (TTX). TTX reduces cytochrome oxidase activity in treated neurons, and this reduction is reversed by light treatment (an increase in cytochrome oxidase activity). In an in vivo model, 670 nanometer light is used to rescue retinal function in a methanol-mediated model of retinal damage. Methanol is metabolized to formate, a selective mitochondrial toxin targeted at cytochrome C oxidase. Irradiation with light (670 nanometers) rescued the retina from damage induced by methanol.

Tissue Penetration and Absorption

In vitro and near in vitro like conditions (retinal studies) have previously demonstrated that light can induce beneficial effects in animals. Yet these effects required little if any ability to penetrate non-involved tissues. For treatments of Parkinson's disease by irradiation through intervening tissue, certain embodiments utilize wavelengths that can penetrate to the target tissue.

Light can be absorbed by a variety of chromophores. Some chromophores, such as cytochrome C oxidase can convert the light energy into chemical energy for the cell. Other chromophores can be simple and the light energy is converted to heat, for example water. The absorption of light energy is wavelength dependent and chromophore dependant.

Some chromophores, such as water or hemoglobin, are ubiquitous and absorb light to such a degree that little or no penetration of light energy into a tissue occurs. For example, water absorbs light above approximately 1300 nanometers. Thus energy in this range has little ability to penetrate tissue due to the water content. However, water is transparent or nearly transparent in wavelengths between 300 and 1300 nanometers. Another example is hemoglobin, which absorbs heavily in the region between 300 and 670 nanometers, but is reasonably transparent above 670 nanometers.

Based on these broad assumptions, one can define an “IR window” into the body. Within the window, there are certain wavelengths that are more or less likely to penetrate. This discussion does not include wavelength dependent scattering effects of intervening tissues.

The absorption/transmittance of various tissues have been directly measured to determine the utility of various wavelengths. FIG. 39 is a graph of the transmittance of light through blood (in arbitrary units) as a function of wavelength. Blood absorbs less in the region above 700 nanometers, and is particularly transparent at wavelengths above 780 nanometers. Wavelengths below 700 nanometers are heavily absorbed, and are not likely to be useful therapeutically (except for topical indications).

FIG. 40 is a graph of the absorption of light by brain tissue. Absorption in the brain is strong for wavelengths between 620 and 900 nanometers. This range is also where the copper centers in mitochondria absorb. The brain is particularly rich in mitochondria as it is a very active tissue metabolically (the brain accounts for 20% of blood flow and oxygen consumption). As such, the absorption of light in the 620 to 900 nanometer range is expected if a photostimulative effect is to take place. As discussed herein, in several embodiments, light is administered to the brain (whole or portions thereof) at wavelengths between about 620-900 nm.

By combining FIGS. 39 and 40, the efficiency of energy delivery as a function of wavelength can be calculated, as shown in FIG. 41. Wavelengths between 780 and 880 nanometers are preferable (efficiency of 0.6 or greater) for targeting the brain. The peak efficiency is about 800 to 830 nanometers (efficiency of 1.0 or greater). These wavelengths are not absorbed by water or hemoglobin, and are likely to penetrate to the brain. Once these wavelengths reach the brain, they will be absorbed by the brain and converted to useful energy in several embodiments.

These effects have been directly demonstrated in rat tissues. The absorption of 808 nanometer light was measured through various rat tissues, as shown in FIG. 42. Soft tissues such as skin and fat absorb little light. Muscle, richer in mitochondria, absorbs more light. Even bone is fairly transparent. However, as noted above, brain tissue, as well as spinal cord tissue, absorb 808 nanometer light well.

Efficacy in Other Tissues

Two wavelengths have demonstrated efficacy in animal models of ischemia/mitochondrial damage, namely, 670 nanometers and 808 nanometers. Light having a wavelength of 670 nanometers has shown efficacy in retinal damage. Light having a wavelength of 808 nanometers has demonstrated efficacy in animal models of myocardial infarction (as well as soft tissue injury).

The effects of near infrared light on soft tissue injury have been established in FDA approved trials for carpal tunnel syndrome (830 nanometers) and knee tendonitis (830 nanometers). In both cases, 830 nanometer light was superior to placebo for resolution of symptoms.

Light having a wavelength of 808 nanometers was also used to reduce infarct volume and mortality in myocardial infarction (MI) models in rat, dog, and pig. The MI models are particularly relevant to wavelength selection as similar processes—apoptosis, calcium flux, mitochondrial damage—have been implicated in stroke and MI.

Certain wavelengths of light are associated with activation of biological processes, and others are not. In particular, light mediated mitochondrial activation has been used as a marker of biostimulation. Given the lack of in vivo markers, the use of in vitro markers of light activation was used to help narrow down the large number of potential wavelengths. Wavelengths that activate mitochondria were determined, and these wavelengths were used in vivo models.

Penetration to the target tissue is also of importance. If a biological effect is to be stimulated, then the stimulus must reach the target tissue and cell. In this regard, wavelengths between 800 and 900 nanometers are useful, as they can penetrate into the body. In particular, wavelengths of 800 to 830 nanometers are efficient at penetrating to the brain and then being absorbed by the brain.

The use of 808 nanometer light has a solid basis for the treatment of stroke. This wavelength of light can penetrate to the target tissue (brain), is absorbed by the target tissue, stimulates mitochondrial function, and works in a related animal model of ischemia (MI). This supposition is supported by the striking finding that 808 nanometer light can reduce the neurological deficits and infarct volume associated with stroke (in rats).

Other wavelengths have some of these properties. For example, 670 nanometer light can promote mitochondrial function and preserve retinal neurons. However, this wavelength does not penetrate tissue well as it is highly absorbed by hemoglobin. It is therefore not useful in treating stroke or neurodegenerative conditions.

In certain embodiments, wavelengths from 630 to 904 nanometers may be used. This range includes the wavelengths that activate mitochondria in vitro, and that have effects in animal models. These wavelengths also include the predominant bands that can penetrate into the body.

Transmission in Human Brain

Power density measurements have been made to determine the transmission of laser light having a wavelength of approximately 808 nanometers through successive layers of human brain tissue. Laser light having a wavelength of (808±5) nanometers with a maximum output of approximately 35 Watts was applied to the surface of the cortex using a beam delivery system which approximated the beam profile after the laser light passes through the human skull. Peak power density measurements were taken through sections of human brain tissue using an Ocean Optics spectrophotometer Model USB 2000, Serial No. G1965 and beam diameter after scattering was approximated using a Sony Model DCR-IP220, Serial No. 132289.

A fresh human brain and spinal cord specimen (obtained within six hours after death) was collected and placed in physiologic Dakins solution. The pia layer, arachnoid layer, and vasculature were intact. The brain was sectioned in the midline sagittally and the section was placed in a container and measurements taken at thicknesses of 4.0 centimeters (±0.5 centimeter), 2.5 centimeters (±0.3 centimeter), and 1.5 centimeters (±0.2 centimeter). The power density measurements are shown in Table 2:

TABLE 2 Thickness Power density at cortex Average power density at thickness 4.0 cm 20 mW/cm² 4.9 μW/cm² 2.5 cm 20 mW/cm² 20 μW/cm² 1.5 cm 10 mW/cm² 148 μW/cm²

FIG. 43 is a graph of the power density versus the depth from the dura for an input power density of 10 mW/cm² with the light bars corresponding to predicted values of the power density and dark bars corresponding to an estimated minimum working power density of 7.5 μW/cm², as described below.

Based upon prior animal experimentation, a conservative estimation of the minimum known power density within the tissue of the brain which is able to show efficacy in stroke animal models is 7.5 μW/cm². This estimated minimum working power density is drawn from an experiment in which 10 mW was applied to the rat brain surface, and 7.5 μW/cm² power density was directly measured 1.8 centimeters from the surface. This stroke model consistently produced significant efficacy, including for strokes 1.8 centimeters from the laser probe. Note that this 7.5 μW/cm² is a conservative estimate; the same power density at the brain surface also consistently produces significant efficacy in the 3 centimeter rabbit clot shower model. Note also that the power density measurements in the human brain experiment do not factor in the effect from the CNS-filled sulci, through which the laser energy should be readily transmitted. However, even conservatively assuming 7.5 μW/cm² as the minimum power density hurdle and ignoring expected transmission benefits from the sulci, the experiment described above confirms that approximately 10-15 mW/cm² transmitted upon the cortex (as per an example dosimetry in man) will be effective to at least 3.0 centimeters from the surface of the brain.

In Vivo Thermal Measurements

In vivo thermal measurements were made to determine the heating effect in living tissue of laser light having a wavelength of approximately 808 nanometers. A GaAlAs laser source of 808-nanometer light was placed in direct contact with the skin of the heads of live rabbits and rats. The laser source had an approximately Gaussian beam profile with a beam diameter of 2.5-4.0 millimeters (1/e²). Thermocouple probes (Model Bat-12 from Physitemp Instruments Inc. of Clifton, N.J.) were placed in the subcutaneous tissue and below the dura and measurements were recorded at various power densities. The results of these measurements are shown in Table 3:

TABLE 3 Probe Exposure Temperature Animal location Dose time increase Rat Subcutaneous 15 mW/cm² 4 minutes approximately 3° C. Rat Subdural 15 mW/cm² 4 minutes approximately 1° C. Rat Subcutaneous 75 mW/cm² 4 minutes approximately 7° C. Rat Subdural 75 mW/cm² 4 minutes approximately 7° C. Rabbit Subcutaneous 7.5 mW/cm² 5 minutes less than 0.5° C. Rabbit Subdural 7.5 mW/cm² 5 minutes less than 0.5° C. Rabbit Subcutaneous 37.5 mW/cm² 5 minutes approximately 5.5° C. Rabbit Subdural 37.5 mW/cm² 5 minutes less than 0.5° C.

There is minimal heating (e.g., less than 0.5° C.) in the subdural region at four times the therapeutic energy density. The “heat sink” effect of living tissue that minimizes possible heating in the cortex is significantly larger in humans than in rats or rabbits, due to the larger heat sink and blood flow volume, which further limits the undesirable effects of heating in the treated region of the brain. Therefore, in certain embodiments described herein, a therapeutic dosage of energy is delivered to the target area of the brain without undesirable heating of the dura.

Implantation of In Vitro Irradiated Cells

In certain embodiments, a method is provided for treating damage or illness in the central nervous system in a mammal or human, comprising delivering an effective amount of light energy to an in vitro culture comprising progenitor cells (e.g. stem cells, induced pluripotent cells, genetically modified adult cells, etc.), and implanting the cells into the central nervous system of a mammal or human, wherein delivering an effective amount of light energy includes delivering light having a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range and a power density of at least about 0.01 mW/cm² to the cells in culture.

In certain embodiments, treatment of a patient includes implantation of progenitor cells into the central nervous system (“CNS”) of the patient. Following implantation, the progenitor cells differentiate to form one or more cell types of the central nervous system. The implanted cells may serve any of a variety of purposes, including replacement of cells or tissues that have been irreparably damaged, repair of a portion of the CNS, enhance the production of important CNS neurochemicals such as dopamine, seratonin, endogenous opioid peptides, and the like. Implantation of progenitor cells may be performed alone, or it may be done in combination with the methods of enhancing neurologic functioning, as described herein.

The term “progenitor cell” as used herein has its broadest reasonable meaning, including but not limited to (1) a pluripotent, or lineage-uncommitted, progenitor cell, a “stem cell” or “mesenchymal stem cell”, that is potentially capable of an unlimited number of mitotic divisions to either renew its line or to produce progeny cells that will differentiate into any of a variety of cells, including cells of the central nervous system including neural cells such as astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neurons; or (2) a lineage-committed progenitor cell produced from the mitotic division of a stem cell which will eventually differentiate into a neural cell. Unlike the stem cell from which it is derived, the lineage-committed progenitor is generally considered to be incapable of an unlimited number of mitotic divisions and will eventually differentiate into a neural cell or other CNS cell.

The term “differentiation” as used herein has its broadest reasonable meaning, including but not limited to the process whereby an unspecialized, pluripotent stem cell proceeds through one or more intermediate stage cellular divisions, ultimately producing one or more specialized cell types. Differentiation thus includes the process whereby precursor cells, e.g., uncommitted cell types that precede the fully differentiated forms but may or may not be true stem cells, proceed through intermediate stage cell divisions to ultimately produce specialized cell types. Differentiation encompasses the process whereby mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) are induced to differentiate into one or more of the committed cell types comprising the central nervous system, in vivo or in vitro.

The terms “growth chamber” and “cell culture chamber” as used herein are used interchangeably and are to be interpreted very broadly to refer to any container or vessel suitable for culturing cells, including, but not limited to, dishes, culture plates (single or multiple well), bioreactors, incubators, and the like. Certain embodiments described herein utilize a cell culture apparatus such as is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/700,355, filed Nov. 3, 2003 and incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

In certain embodiments, progenitor cells are inoculated and grown in a cell culture in vitro, using parameters including power density as discussed above. Because the light energy is applied directly to the cell culture in vitro and does not travel through intervening body tissue, the power density selected to be delivered to the cell is generally equal to the power density of the light energy as it is emitted from the light apparatus. If lenses, filters, dispersion gratings, or any other material lies between the light source and the cells, any absorption or dispersion of the light energy by such material should be taken into account and the applied light energy adjusted, if needed, to account for the material. In certain embodiments, the treated cells are implanted following treatment. In certain other embodiments, at least some treated cells remain in culture to maintain the cell line for later use.

After in vitro treatment of cells using electromagnetic energy, the cells are transplanted or implanted to a recipient site in a patient. In certain embodiments, the treatment prior to transplantation or implantation includes culturing cells sufficient for implantation. The recipient site may be a site of injury, illness, or defect, or it may be a region of relatively healthy tissue. In certain embodiments, the recipient site and/or the region surrounding such site is treated with light energy according to the methods described supra, before and/or after implantation to enhance the rate at which the implanted cells are integrated with surrounding tissue at the recipient site.

In certain embodiments, progenitor cells such as stem cells are treated with electromagnetic energy as noted above and then implanted into the brain of a patient, such a patient who is at risk for Parkinson's disease, exhibits symptoms of Parkinson's disease, and/or has been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. Following implantation, the recipient site is optionally treated with electromagnetic energy, including directly at the recipient site or through the skull at the recipient site, or some other portion of the brain, such as the cortex. The transplanted cells produce dopamine to treat, or lessen the symptoms and/or delay onset of Parkinson's disease in the patient.

In certain embodiments, progenitor cells are treated with electromagnetic energy and implanted or transplanted at a site of physical trauma to the spinal cord or one or more nerves of a patient. Following implantation, the recipient site is optionally treated with electromagnetic energy. Such optional treatment may include treatment immediately following implantation and/or one or more treatment periods following implantation. The transplanted cells help repair damage to the spinal cord or nerve(s) such that the recovery or prognosis is enhanced in patients having implanted progenitor cells as compared with those who do not receive such implants.

Treatment of Heat Stroke

In certain embodiments, a method prevents heat stroke in a subject. The term “preventing” in this context includes reducing the severity of a later heat stroke in a subject that has undergone treatment, reducing the incidence of heat stroke in individuals who have undergone treatment, as well as reducing the likelihood of onset heat stroke in a subject that has undergone treatment. The method includes delivering light energy having a wavelength in the visible to near-infrared wavelength range through the skull to at least one area of the brain of a subject, wherein the wavelength, power density and amount of the light energy delivered are sufficient to prevent, reduce the severity, or reduce the incidence of heat stroke in the subject.

While certain embodiments of phototherapy are described herein in conjunction with various theories and potential action mechanisms, as they presently appear to the inventors, the scope of the claims of the present application is not to be construed to depend on the accuracy, relevance, or specifics of any of these theories or potential action mechanisms. Thus the claims of the present application are to be construed without being bound by theory or by a specific mechanism.

Example 3—Enhanced Mitochondrial Transport After Light Therapy

Sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) is a disabling, progressive neurodegenerative disease. The neuropathological characterization of PD includes not only the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and other brainstem nuclei but also the presence of cytoplasmic inclusions that form Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites in surviving neurons. Degeneration of nigral neurons begins at synaptic terminals and progresses retrograde to cell bodies before the onset of symptoms. At symptom onset, 60-80% of the striatal dopaminergic terminals have already been lost. Dopaminergic nerve terminals continue to be lost at a rate of 10-12% a year.

Neurons prone to degeneration in PD have axons that are long and poorly myelinated and provide a massive innervation to the striatum (150,000 presynaptic terminals per neuron). Neurons have a high metabolic rate and require a large, uninterrupted supply of ATP. Microtubule-based anterograde axonal transport is ATP-driven and responsible for the delivery of mitochondria and other cellular constituents to distal sites in neurons. Compromised retrograde axonal transport deprives the cell body of vital trophic factors and deprives axons and dendrites of synaptic vesicles, lysosomes and mitochondria.

As discussed above, reduced or compromised axonal transport could underlie the progressive, relentless loss of dopaminergic nerve terminals in sporadic PD. Axonal transport is one aspect of mitochondrial dynamics that is important to the distribution of functional mitochondria to distal synaptic terminals. Movement, fission, and fusion of mitochondria are also key functions for neuronal survival. There is a disruption in the distribution of both microtubules and organelles such as mitochondria in the human PD caudate and striatum. Neurotoxins that can be used to model PD pathogenesis (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) and rotenone) compromise mitochondrial function by inhibiting complex I of the mtETC. These toxins also have microtubule depolymerizing activities that alter axonal transport. Complex I of the mtETC is structurally and functionally defective in brain, platelets and other tissues in PD patients. Since mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes components of the mtETC, it is not surprising that mtDNA from PD patients contains increased levels of mutations and deletions.

Genes linked to familial PD (α-synuclein, parkin and PINK1) play important roles in mitochondrial transport dynamics and function. Pathogenic mutation, hyper-phosphorylation or over-expression of α-synuclein is associated with reduced axonal transport. It has been suggested that the consequences of both genetic and environmental risk factors for familial and sporadic PD disrupt microtubules and axonal transport, leading to the death of dopaminergic neurons.

In an effort to explore the contribution of mitochondria to features of PD pathogenesis such as reduced axonal transport, “cytoplasmic hybrid” cybrid cell lines have been employed in this study. Cybrid cell lines were created by the fusion of donated platelets from PD or CNT volunteers with human mtDNA-free (Rho0) SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma or NT2 teratocarcinoma cells. Cybrid cell lines have been used to explore the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in PD. Using this model of PD pathogenesis, the contribution of mitochondria can be selectively studied and the variability due to nuclear genes and environmental factors can be controlled.

Changes in PD cybrid cell lines correlate with changes seen in PD brain. PD cybrid lines exhibit decreased complex I activity, increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased levels of antioxidant enzymes, increased numbers of morphologically abnormal mitochondria, mtDNA with deletions, and fibrillar and vesicular inclusions called cybrid Lewy bodies that replicate the essential antigenic and structural features of Lewy bodies in PD brain.

Non-dividing, process-bearing, dopaminergic neuronal cells were generated from undifferentiated CNT and PD cybrids using a low concentration of staurosporine. These PD and CNT cybrid neuronal cells contain neuronal cytoskeletal proteins (neuron-specific beta tubulin, tau, and microtubule associated protein 2) and dopaminergic markers (tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine transporter, the dopamine D2 receptor and the vesicular monoamine transporter). As shown and described herein, the velocity of mitochondrial movement is significantly reduced in the processes of PD cybrid neuronal cells compared to CNT, suggesting that reduced movement of mitochondria and/or reduced axonal transport plays a role in PD progression.

In an effort to normalize this reduction in mitochondrial movement, PD and CNT cybrid neuronal cells were exposed to a low level near-infrared light therapy, according to several embodiments of the invention. In several embodiments, as discussed below, a single treatment with 810 nm laser light was sufficient to restore the velocity of mitochondrial movement to control levels in PD cybrid neuronal cells. In some embodiments, the velocity of mitochondrial movement in impaired cells (not limited to PD cells) will be enhanced to control levels (or by at least a margin having a physiological effect, e.g., improved to levels of at least 25%, 50%, 75% or greater of control levels).

Methods

Patient Population

The Hoehn and Yahr score (an art recognized scale for evaluating symptoms of Parkinson's disease; Hoehn M, Yahr M (1967). “Parkinsonism: onset, progression and mortality” Neurology 17 (5): 427-42) for all PD volunteers was stage 2. The mean age for the PD group was 72.14−/−4.18SD and 64.4−/−5.68SD for the CNT group.

Cybrid Growth and Differentiation

PD and CNT cybrid cell lines were created by fusing platelets from sporadic PD or disease-free CNT individuals with mtDNA-free Rho0 cells created in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Blood samples were collected under an IRB-approved protocol, and cybrid cells were created by established methods. PD and CNT cybrid, SH-SY5Y and Rho0 cell lines were grown in T75 tissue culture flasks (Greiner, PGC Scientific, Gaithersburg, Md.) in a culture medium (CM) consisting of Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium with high glucose (DMEM), 10% characterized fetal bovine serum (FBS, Hyclone, Logan, Utah), 100 μg/ml pyruvate, 50 μg/ml uridine, antibiotic-antimycotic, 100 Units/ml penicillin G, 100 μg/ml streptomycin, 0.25 μg/ml and amphotericin β (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif., USA).

Cybrid Neuron Differentiation

Glass bottomed 35 mm dishes (MatTek Corp., Ashland, Mass.) were washed with sterile H₂O then treated with sterile 1 N HCl for 30 minutes, washed three times with sterile H₂O and stored at room temperature (RT). Coverslip dishes were coated for 40 min.-overnight with 1.5 mg/ml poly-1-lysine (PL, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., USA) dissolved in sterile RT H₂O. Dishes were rinsed twice with sterile RT H₂O before adding the cell suspension.

Proliferating cybrid cells were harvested from flasks with 0.05% trypsin (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., USA) for 5 minutes at 37° C. Trypsin activity was stopped by an equal volume of CM. Cells were then centrifuged at 200 g for 5 minutes and re-suspended in CM. 40,000 cells in 2 ml CM were added to each 35 mM dish. After 18-24 hours, CM was removed and the differentiation media (DM, 500 ml of Neurobasal with 10 ml B27 supplements [Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.] and 0.5 mM glutamine, pyruvate, uridine and antibiotic-antimycotic as described above). A 25 μM stock solution of staurosporine (ST, Sigma-Aldrich Corp, St Louis, Mo., USA) was made in dimethyl sulfoxide, frozen at −80° C. Unused aliquots were discarded after 60 days. ST (4 nM-8 nM) dilutions were made fresh in DM and replaced every 2-3 days. Differentiation was completed on day 12.

Immunocytochemistry

The MitoProfile® OXPHOS/PDH immunocytochemistry kit (MitoSciences, Eugene, Oreg., USA) was used to detect defective assembly of ETC complexes I-V. The manufacturer's suggested protocol was modified for coverslip dishes. Vectashield mounting medium (Vector Labs, Burlingame, Calif., USA) was added to coverslip dish after staining. Images of stained cybrid neuronal cells were created using an Olympus Fluoview laser scanning confocal microscope system (Center Valley, Pa., USA). SYTO 61 (Invitrogen) at a concentration of 5 mM (30 min) was used to stain nucleic acids in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.

High Resolution Oxygen Respirometry

A two chamber oxygraph O2k (Oroboros, Innsbruck, Austria) was used to measure respiration rates of dissociated CNT, PD and laser-treated CNT and PD cybrid neuronal cells according to manufacturers directions. After 12 days in DM, PD and CNT cybrid neuronal cells were harvested by rinsing with PBS. The cells (4.5×10⁶ cells/ml resuspended in phenol-free DMEM and separated into two sterile 35 mm culture dishes) were kept on ice. In this blinded study, one dish received LLLT (see below) and the other dish remained untreated for each cybrid line studied. After the oxygraph was calibrated according to manufacturer's instructions, 2 ml of LLLT or untreated cybrid neuronal cells were added to each chamber. The chambers were closed and cells were equilibrated (37° C.). After the basal rate of respiration was established, complex V respiration was inhibited by oligomycin (4 μg/ml final concentration). Respiration was uncoupled by carbonyl cyanide 4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone (FCCP at a final concentration of ˜0.325 μM, Sigma St Louis, Mo.). Complex 1 was inhibited by adding rotenone at a final concentration of 1.0 μM.

Axonal Transport

To measure mitochondrial movement, cybrid neuronal cells were incubated with 50 nM MitoTracker CMXRos (MTRed; Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif., USA) for 10 min at 37° C. Time-lapse recordings were made using an Olympus IX70 microscope equipped with epifluorescence and Nomarski optics, a Lambda 10-2 filter wheel, a Photometrics CoolSnap HQ progressive scan CCD camera and a heater/controller to maintain cybrid cells at 37° C. during image collection (World Precision Instruments, Inc, Sarasota, Fla., USA). Collection of image stacks, and velocity measurements were made using MetaMorph Imaging System (Molecular Devices, Downingtown, Pa., USA). For standard recordings, images were collected every 3 seconds for 2 min. The velocity of all mitochondria in each cell process was tracked by hand whether they moved or not. The average velocity for individual mitochondria was calculated using intervals where movement occurred. Neutral density filters are used to reduce illumination from the mercury lamp and minimize phototoxicity.

LLLT with Near-Infrared 810 nm Laser

Differentiated neuronal cells from cultures of six PD and five CNT cybrid lines as well as SH-SY5Y were labeled with MtRed in phenol-free DM and 10-15 movies (1-3 neurites per movie, 8-50 mitochondria per process) were collected per dish. A second dish from each line was switched to phenol-free DM and uniformly illuminated at a power density (or irradiance) of 50 mW/cm² (measured at the dish surface) with a continuous wave 810 nm diode laser for 40 seconds (Acculaser, PhotoThera, Inc, Carlsbad, Calif., USA). The power output of the laser was measured before each LLLT experiment with an Ohir Optronics power meter (Jerusalem, Israel) to ensure consistent exposure. After LLLT, neuronal cells from six PD, five CNT and SH-SY5Y lines were stained with MTRed as described above. Movies (n=10-15 movies per experimental condition, 2-3 processes/movie, 8-50 mitochondria per process) were collected at 5 to 10 minute intervals for at least 2 hours for each dish (n=2-3 experiments+/−LLLT per cybrid line). T-tests assuming equal or unequal variance were used as needed to analyze the data.

Results

Mitochondrial Movement in Differentiated PD and CNT Cybrid Neurites

The processes selected for study in all conditions were qualitatively comparable in length and diameter in PD, CNT and LLLT-treated cybrids (see FIGS. 44A-D). Mitochondrial movement in PD, CNT and LLLT and untreated cybrid neurites was bidirectional but primarily anterograde and saltatory. FIGS. 44A-44D are montages depicting the movements of 50 nM MitoTracker CMXRos (MTRed; Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) labeled mitochondria. (Bar=1 μm) Moving mitochondria in each montage are indicated by arrowheads, arrows, circles, and boxes. Images were taken every 3 seconds FIG. 44A illustrates movement in processes of a disease-free age-matched volunteer control (CNT, specifically CNT68). FIG. 44B illustrates movement of CNT68, 90 minutes after administration of low-level light therapy. FIG. 44C illustrates movement in a Parkinson's disease (PD) neuronal process. FIG. 44D illustrates movement in a Parkinson's disease neuronal process 85 minutes after administration of low-level light therapy. In comparing FIGS. 44B and 44D, it is evident that the administration of low-level light therapy to PD neurons resulted in an increase in mitochondrial movement. In some embodiments, administration of low-level light therapy increases axonal transport generally (e.g., increases the movement of molecular motors and their cargo, such as neurotransmitter vesicles). In some embodiments, mitochondrial transport is enhanced. In some embodiments, mitochondrial transport is restored to normal levels after a period of time of reduced transport, such as that induced by disease, injury or damage to the neuron.

The number of mitochondria moving retrograde in any process was minimal. Consequently, velocity was measured irrespective of direction. Average velocities for individual mitochondria less than or equal to 0.075 μm/second were categorized as stationary. In CNT cybrids, 14% of the mitochondria were stationary during the recording period. The number of stationary mitochondria in PD cybrid neurites was elevated compared to CNT cybrid neurites (29%, see Table 4). In several embodiments, LLLT enhances anterograde axonal transport. In several embodiments, LLLT enhances retrograde axonal transport. In several embodiments, LLLT enhances both anterograde and retrograde axonal transport.

TABLE 4 Data from studies of mitochondrial movement in LLLT and untreated PD and CNT cybrid neurons PD vs PD PD + vs LLLT CNT PD p CNT p (n = 6) SEM value (n = 5) SEM value Velocity (μm/sec) 0.175 0.005 0.001 0.232 0.017 0.02 Percent not 29 3.68 0.01 14 2.42 0.01 moving (v < 0.075) Average distance 0.54 0.016 0.006 0.757 0.048 NS traveled Total distance 9.92 0.261 0.004 17.09 1.18 0.004 traveled Time spent 45 0.358 NS 61 6.89 NS moving (out of 120 sec) Number of 24-53 26-44 neurites/cybrid CNT vs PD + CNT + CNT + LLLT LLLT LLLT (n = 6) SEM (n = 5) SEM p value LLLT-50 mW/cm² for 40 sec (2 J/cm²) Velocity (μm/sec) 0.224 0.02 0.226 0.017 NS Percent not 12 2.15 16 2.15 NS moving (v < 0.075) Average distance 0.682 0.033 0.782 0.065 NS traveled Total distance 12.78 0.616 16.34 1.27 NS traveled Time spent 48 3.94 63 6.92 NS moving (out of 120 sec) Number of 25-51 28-58 neurites/cybrid Significance was determined using a two-tailed t test assuming unequal variance.

FIG. 45A depicts the average velocity of mitochondrial movement in the processes of CNT (disease-free age-matched volunteer controls) (n=5), CNT+LLLT (n=5), PD (n=6) and PD+LLLT (n=6) cybrid neuronal cell lines. Mitochondrial movement in PD cybrid neurites was significantly reduced compared to CNT neurites (0.175−/−0.005 vs. 0.232−/−0.017 μm/sec, respectively). Mitochondrial movement in light treated PD cybrid neurites was significantly increased compared to PD (0.224−/−0.002 vs. 0.175−/−0.005, respectively).

FIG. 45B depicts the average distance traveled by mitochondria during the recording period. The average distance traveled by mitochondria (calculated by averaging the distance traveled for each three second interval irrespective of direction of travel) in PD+LLLT was significantly increased above PD (0.682−/−0.033 vs. 0.54−/−0.016 μm, respectively).

FIG. 45C depicts the total distance traveled (calculated by summing the distance traveled in each three second interval irrespective of direction of travel) during the recording period by mitochondria in each category. While the total amount of time spent moving and the average distance traveled by mitochondria in PD cybrid neurites was reduced but not significantly different from CNT (Table 4, FIG. 45B), the total distance traveled by mitochondria in PD cybrid neurites was significantly reduced compared to CNT cybrid mitochondria (FIG. 45C). The total distance traveled by PD+LLLT mitochondria were significantly increased compared to PD (12.78−/−0.616 vs. 9.92−/−0.261 μm, respectively).

Thus in some embodiments, administration of light is used to increase one or more of the velocity, the average distance traveled (over a period of time) or the total distance that a mitochondria is transported. In some embodiments, combinations of these parameters are increased. In several embodiments, increasing one or more of these parameters is advantageous due to the length of the axonal process of the neuron that exhibited reduced transport.

Effects of LLLT on Mitochondrial Movement in Differentiated PD and CNT Cybrid Neurites

For at least 2 hours after exposure to LLLT (Table 4 and FIG. 45A), the velocity of mitochondrial movement in PD cybrid neurites was significantly increased and restored to CNT levels. This change in velocity was achieved by reducing the number of stationary mitochondria and increasing the average and total distance traveled (Table 4 and FIG. 45B). In some embodiments, LLLT will initiate movement in a greater number of stationary mitochondria. In some embodiments, mitochondria that are already in motion will increase their velocity. The total time PD mitochondria spent moving after LLLT was not significantly different from CNT (Table 4). Of the six PD cybrid lines studied, the response of two lines (PD60, PD61) to LLLT was consistently increased but did not achieve significance in three separate studies. Mitochondrial movement in the five CNT cybrid lines also did not change significantly in response to LLLT (Table 4 and FIG. 45C). In some embodiments, exposure of normal neurons to certain parameters of LLLT that are disclosed herein will also exhibit increased axonal transport and/or mitochondrial movement. In several embodiments, enhancement of axonal transport in healthy cells can prevent the onset of degeneration and/or can enhance function over baseline (e.g., enhance memory, mental acuity, motor function, and/or sensory function, etc.).

mtETC Assembly in PD, CNT and LLLT-Treated Cybrid Neuronal Cells

To better understand the role that mitochondrial dysfunction plays in mitochondrial movement, differentiated PD and CNT cybrid neuronal cells were double stained with antibodies to essential components of mtETC complexes I-V.

The montage in FIGS. 46A-O shows PD61 cybrid neuronal cells stained with the MitoProfile® OXPHOS/PDH immunocytochemistry kit (MitoSciences). (Bar=20 μm.) Specific antibodies (FITC secondary antibody, green) to Complex I-NDUFB4 (A-C), Complex II-30 kDa (D-F), Complex III-Core 2 protein (G-I), Complex IV-subunit I (J-L), and Complex V-OSCP (M-O) were combined with antibodies to a control subunit (CVα, Texas red secondary, red) to double stain mitochondria in cybrid neuronal cells. The cell bodies were stained with SYTO 61 (blue). Cybrid neuronal cells in the first column that exhibit double staining are orange or yellow and have intact mtETC assembly while cybrid neuronal cells that lack intact assembly of complexes in the mtETC are red. The graph in FIG. 46P depicts counts of PD cybrid neuronal cells that contained fully assembled mtETC complexes. In this graph Complex I is black, Complex II has diagonal stripes, Complex III is light gray, Complex IV has horizontal stripes, and Complex V is dark gray. The CNT cybrid neuronal cells exhibited complete assembly of all five complexes (data not shown).

The presence of staining with monoclonal antibodies directed against labile subunits of each complex (CI-NDUFB4, CII-30 kDa, CIII-Core 2 protein, CIV-subunit I, CV-OSCP) indicates that the complex is correctly assembled. By double staining with antibodies to a control subunit (CV α), it was possible to calculate the percentage of cybrid neuronal cells that had intact assembly of complexes I-V (FIG. 46P). All five complexes were correctly assembled in CNT cybrid neuronal cells (data not shown). PD cybrid neuron lines (PD60, PD61) exhibited an increase mitochondrial movement after LLLT that did not achieve significance. The same lines also exhibited low levels of complexes I and IV assembly as well as reduced assembly in two other complexes (FIGS. 46A-P). In contrast, the four PD cybrids (PD63, PD65, PD66, PD67) that exhibited a significant response to LLLT contained more cybrid neuronal cells with correctly assembled complexes I and IV (50-100%). In these four PD lines, at least three complexes were correctly assembled which suggests that the mtETC was more functional. In several embodiments, neurons having correctly assembled mitochondria are more potently affected by exposure to LLLT. In some embodiments, those neurons having poorly or mis-assembled mitochondria are also positively impacted by light therapy, although in some instances the recovery of axonal transport is less. In one embodiment, the invention comprises a system and method for detecting proper (or improper) assembly in mitochondria. In one embodiment, the system and method comprises administering LLLT to mitochondria, measuring axonal transport and correlating axonal transport (or other effect of LLLT) with a degree of mis-assembly.

In some embodiments, LLLT is used to treat illnesses other than PD. For example, in some embodiments, LLLT is used to treat Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotropic lateral sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, or hereditary spastic paraplegia. In some embodiments, LLLT is used to treat a disorder in which mitochondrial transport (or axonal transport) is diminished by at least 20%, 25%, 50%, 75% or more. In one embodiment, LLLT is used to treat mitochondrial myopathies. In one embodiment, LLLT is used to treat peripheral or optical neuropathy based on mitochondrial dysfunction. Veterinary treatments are provided in some embodiments.

Oxygen Utilization Studies

An Oxygraph 2K (Oroboros) was used to measure changes in oxygen utilization by Rho0 cells that lack a functional mtETC, two lines of PD cybrid neuronal cells (PD60 and PD61) that did not respond significantly to LLLT, two lines of PD cybrid neuronal cells (PD65 and PD66) that did respond significantly to LLLT and a CNT line (CNT91) of cybrid neuronal cells. These data are shown in FIGS. 47A-F. Rho0 cells, PD60 and PD61 had reduced routine aerobic respiration (FIG. 47A), capacity of the mtETC (FIG. 47C) and complex I mediated respiration (FIG. 47E) compared to CNT91. Non-phosphorylating (oligomycin-inhibited) respiration (LEAK, FIG. 47B) did not vary greatly among any of the cell lines tested; however the residual oxygen consumption (ROX, FIG. 47D) was higher in Rho0, PD60 and PD61 lines compared to PD65, PD66 or CNT91. In contrast CNT91, PD65 and PD66 had higher routine aerobic respiration, mtETC capacity, and complex I mediated respiration (FIGS. 47A, 47C, and 47E) as well as a reduced level of ROX (FIG. 47D). The respiratory control ratio (RCR) which reveals the relative efficiency of ETC coupling (FIG. 47F) was diminished in Rho0, PD60 and PD61 compared to cybrid lines that responded significantly to LLLT (PD65, PD66 and CNT91). During the two hour period of measurement after LLLT there was no statistically significant change in respiratory chain activity in any of the cybrid lines tested using the Oxygraph-2k (data not shown).

In several embodiments of the invention, velocity of mitochondrial movement by axonal transport is significantly reduced in a human neuronal model of sporadic PD. In one embodiment, a single treatment with near-infrared laser light can restore the velocity of mitochondrial movement in PD cybrid neuronal cells to CNT levels. LLLT treatment of impaired cells (other than PD) will also enhance the velocity of mitochondrial movement in other embodiments.

The mitochondria in PD cybrids exhibit structural and functional changes that could interfere with normal movement of mitochondria by axonal transport or contribute to the differential response of PD cybrid mitochondria to LLLT. These include reduced activity of complexes I and IV, increased levels of oxidized and nitrated proteins, insufficient ATP, a swollen and abnormal morphology, increased levels of modified α-synuclein, and increased free/polymerized tubulin ratio. However, despite these variations, even structural non-normal mitochondria exhibited some degree of enhanced transport in response to LLLT. In some embodiments, the administration of light at certain parameters more optimally enhances movement of structurally altered mitochondria. In some embodiments, the wavelength of light is instrumental in determining the effect on axonal transport. In some embodiments, the power of light is instrumental in determining the effect on axonal transport. In some embodiments, combinations of the wavelength and the power of light determine the effect on axonal transport

The present results suggest that complex I dysfunction may play an important role in PD pathogenesis. Analysis of the mtETC revealed reduced assembly of complex I in five out of six PD cybrid neuronal cell lines (FIG. 46B). Findings of reduced capacity of the electron transport chain, routine respiration and complex I mediated oxygen utilization (FIGS. 47A-F) in PD cybrid neuronal cells, complimented our mtETC assembly data. CNT91 cybrid neuronal cells had oxygen utilization rates comparable to fibroblasts, peritoneal mesothelial cells and hematopoietic cells. Thus, in some embodiments, the degree of enhanced axonal transport after light therapy can be associated with the degree of complex I structure malformation and/or oxidative damage. In some embodiments, analysis of complex I (with or without analysis of other complexes) is used to predict the likelihood that a patient will respond significantly to LLLT.

Complex IV is also misassembled in four out of six PD cybrid lines (FIG. 46B). Reduced complex IV activity and increased levels of nitrated proteins have been detected in PD tissue and in PD cybrid lines. It is possible that nitrative damage plays an important role in PD. Both complexes I and IV are targets of NO. Treatment of neuronal cultures with NO reduces the movement of mitochondria and synaptic vesicles; therefore, it is reasonable to propose that nitrative damage to the mtETC contributes to the loss of mitochondrial movement in PD cybrids. In several embodiments, light therapy reduces and/or reverses nitrative damage to the various components of the mtETC.

While the degree of mtETC mis-assembly in each PD cybrid line did not correlate with mitochondrial velocity, mtETC mis-assembly did relate to the response of PD cybrid neuronal cells to LLLT. All the PD cybrid neuronal cells showed increased mitochondrial velocity after LLLT; however the changes in PD60 and PD61 did not consistently achieve significance (FIG. 46B). Current understanding suggests that near-infrared light is absorbed by photosensitizers such as the oxidized copper centers in complex IV. This results in the excitation and transfer of electrons to oxygen and the generation of low level changes in ROS expression that activates cellular processes through the release of transcription factors and altered gene expression. Near-infrared light can also reverse the inhibition of complex IV and cellular respiration caused by NO occupation of the oxygen site. Cybrid neuronal cells PD60 and PD61 had the lowest levels of complex I and IV assembly of all our lines (FIG. 46B). As discussed above, the assembly of one or more mitochondrial complexes is correlated with the degree of enhanced axonal transport after LLLT. Thus in some embodiments, analysis mitochondrial ETC assembly is used to predict the degree to which a patient will respond significantly to LLLT.

Moreover, certain embodiments of light therapy disclosed herein alter oxygen utilization in certain neurons. In some embodiments, oxygen consumption is increased in neurons having reduced axonal transport, while in some embodiments, normal neurons increase oxygen consumption. Similarly, oxygen consumption is altered on different time-scales in some embodiments. In some embodiments, oxygen consumption is altered on a short time frame (e.g. less than about 2 hours). In other embodiments, the effects of light therapy are longer lasting (e.g., greater than 2 hours and up to several days).

Reduced ATP levels stemming from mtETC dysfunction could also limit availability of ATP for use by the motors that drive axonal transport. Thus, in some embodiments, light therapy increases the function of the mtETC, which increases the available ATP for use by molecular motors involved in axonal transport. Regional increases in ADP can trigger mitochondrial movement in some embodiments. In the present study, the ADP/ATP ratio was not detected to be definitively altered in our PD and CNT cybrid neuronal cells after LLLT. However, in some embodiments, light therapy may increase either the ATP available (as above) or produce regional increases in ADP, with either scenario resulting in increased axonal transport, albeit by differing mechanism. In some embodiments, LLLT affects the ratio of ADP to ATP to, for example, enhance neurological function.

Mitochondria in valinomycin-treated cerebellar neuronal cells are known to swell and block mitochondrial movement. The mitochondria in PD cybrid neurites were not swollen or rounded (FIGS. 44B, 44D) so the reduction in movement is unlikely attributable to this cause. PD cybrids did contain aggregated, oxidized, and phosphorylated α-synuclein (data not shown). Modified α-synuclein may contribute to the reduction in mitochondrial movement in PD cybrid neurites, and in some embodiments, LLLT alters one or more of α-synuclein aggregation, oxidation or phosphorylation to induce recovery of mitochondrial transport. In some embodiments, LLLT disaggregates aggregates of α-synuclein that can cause localized swelling that resembles a Lewy neurite and disrupt movement of all mitochondria distal to the swelling

The results disclosed herein regarding LLLT exposure of human cybrid neuronal cells that contain mitochondria derived from CNT and PD volunteers illustrate that axonal transport of mitochondria is significantly reduced in PD cybrid neurites. Reduced axonal transport could underlie the loss of neurites through terminal degeneration and result in the death of dopaminergic neuronal cells in PD. In some embodiments disclosed herein, the administration of light therapy enhances the axonal transport of neurons which improves one or more of mitochondrial assembly, transport, function, and overall neuronal function and/or survival. Several embodiments are particularly advantageous because the restoration of axonal transport is observed with a single, low level exposure to LLLT.

Various embodiments of the present invention have been described above. Although this invention has been described with reference to these specific embodiments, the descriptions are intended to be illustrative of the invention and are not intended to be limiting. Various modifications and applications may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for enhancing axonal transport in an impaired neuron, the method comprising: providing a low level light therapy (LLLT) device, wherein the LLLT device has a light emitting surface that emits light; identifying one or more neurons having impaired axonal transport; delivering the light to the one or more neurons; and determining the rate of axonal transport in one or more of the one or more neurons in response to the delivery of the light and adjusting the light in response to the determined rate of axonal transport, wherein the light has a wavelength between 630 nm and 1064 nm, wherein the light has an irradiance at the light emitting surface of 10 mW/cm² to 10000 mW/cm², and wherein the light enhances one or more of the velocity of axonal transport in one or more of the one or more neurons, the average distance of axonal transport in one or more of the one or more neurons, and the total distance of axonal transport in one or more of the one or more neurons, thereby enhancing axonal transport in one or more of the one or more neurons.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the light has an irradiance at or within one centimeter of one or more of the one or more neurons of 20 mW/cm² to 60 mW/cm².
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the light has an irradiance at or within one centimeter of one or more of the one or more neurons of 50 mW/cm².
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the axonal transport in one or more of the one or more neurons is impaired by at least 10% as compared to axonal transport in a healthy neuron.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the axonal transport in one or more of the one or more neurons after delivering the light is comparable to axonal transport in healthy neurons.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the enhancement of axonal transport enhances transport of one or more mitochondria along an axon of one or more of the one or more neurons.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the light has a wavelength of 810 nm.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more neurons comprise at least one of a peripheral neuron, sensory neuron, motor neuron, and inter neuron.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein one or more of the one or more neurons are associated with cognitive function.
 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising identifying a patient having Parkinson's disease, and delivering the light to the patient.
 11. The method of claim 1, further comprising: identifying a patient having a neurological impairment, wherein the neurological impairment is selected from the group consisting of Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, dopaminergic impairment, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; and delivering the light to the patient.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the enhancement of axonal transport comprises increasing the rate of axonal transport.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein enhancing the rate of axonal transport comprises accelerating the clearance of a substance from one or more of the one or more neurons.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the light is delivered continuously.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the light is delivered in pulses.
 16. A method for enhancing axonal transport in a neuron, the method comprising: providing a low level light therapy (LLLT) device, wherein the LLLT device has a light emitting surface that emits light; delivering the light to at least one neuron; and determining the rate of axonal transport in the neuron in response to the delivery of the light and adjusting the light in response to the determined rate of axonal transport, wherein the light has a wavelength between 630 nm and 1064 nm, wherein the light has an irradiance at or within one centimeter of the neuron of 20 mW/cm² to 60 mW/cm², and wherein the light enhances axonal transport in the neuron by enhancing one or more of the following: velocity of axonal transport, average distance of axonal transport, and total distance of axonal transport.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the light is delivered in pulses at a frequency ranging from 80 to 120 Hertz.
 18. A method for enhancing neuronal axonal transport in a patient having one or more symptoms of Parkinson's disease, the method comprising: identifying a patient with one or more symptoms of Parkinson's disease; providing a low level light therapy (LLLT) device, wherein the LLLT device has a light emitting surface that emits light, wherein the LLLT device is configured for delivering light to a plurality of neurons in the patient; delivering the light to the patient; and determining the rate of axonal transport in one or more of the plurality of neurons in response to the delivery of the light and adjusting the light in response to the determined rate of axonal transport, wherein the light has a wavelength between 630 nm and 1064 nm, wherein the light has an irradiance at the light emitting surface of 10 mW/cm² to 10000 mW/cm², and wherein the light enhances one or more of the velocity of axonal transport in one or more of the plurality of neurons, the average distance of axonal transport in one or more of the plurality of neurons, and the total distance of axonal transport in one or more of the plurality of neurons, thereby enhancing axonal transport in one or more of the plurality of neurons and improving one or more symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein one or more of the plurality of neurons are dopaminergic neurons and the enhanced axonal transport increases the delivery of dopamine to the synapse of the dopaminergic neurons.
 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the light has a peak irradiance at the light emitting surface of 10 mW/cm² to 10000 mW/cm².
 21. The method of claim 1, wherein the light has a wavelength between 800 nm and 815 nm, and wherein the light has an irradiance at the light emitting surface of 1400 mW/cm² to 4200 mW/cm². 